I-^V'**. MUSEUM OF OOMPAKATIVE ZOOLOGY J\~^.l^,^V j\ *r^^>vAlTu ' \^o\. ff". 7 'M .^^ THE CANADIAN NATURALIST ^uarttrlg |ournaI of Sritnct, WITH THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAli. CONDUCTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE SOCIETY. NEW SERIES -Vol. 4. (with two plates and a map. EDITING COMMITTEE. Acting Editor : J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., etc. J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L. E, Billings, F.G.S. P. P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph. D. David A. P. AVatt. A. S. Ritchie. .J. B. Edwards, Ph.D., F.C.S., Chairmun. MONTREAL : DAWSON BROTHERS, 55 to 59 ST. JAMES STREET. ^1869. Entered, according to Act (if the Provincial Parliament, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-nine, by Dawson Brothers, in the Office of the Registrar of the Dominion ( f Canada. MONTREAL : PRINTED BY THE MONTREAL PRINTING AND PUBLISHING COMPANY, CONTENTS. Notes ol a visit to Scientific Schools and Museums in the United States; by Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S 1 On the Geology ot South-western Ontario; by T. Stekry Hunt 11 On the choice of a Microscope ; by J. Baker Edwards, Ph.D., F.C.S 20 On the Coieoptera cf tne I,-land of Montreal ; by 'A. S. Ritchie 27 On the Geology and Silver Ore of Wood's Location, Lake Superior. Part I. ; by Thos. Macfarlaxe 37 On the Marine Mollusca of Eastern Canada: by J. F. Whiteavbs 48 On Chemical fclxplosives; by J. B. Edwards. Ph.D., F.C.S 57 On 1 he Great Snow Falls of 1869 : by C SiiALLWOOD, M. I '., LL.D 62 On Modern Ideas of Derivation ; by Principal Dawson. LL-D., F.R.S 121 On the Occurrence of Arctic and Western Plants in Continental Acadia; by G . F. Matthew, F.G.S I39 On the Probable seat of Volcanic Action ; by Dr. T Sterry Hunt 166 On the Toad as an Entomologist ; by A. S. Ritchie I74 On Trichina spiralis : by Dr. .J. Baker Edwards. F.C.S 178 On Remarkable Lunar Phenomenon; by C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D 183 On the DistributioN of Rain ; by C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D 184 On some f the Causes of the E.xcessive Mortality of Young Children in the City of Montreal; by Philip P. Carpenter. B.A., Ph.D 188 On the Partial Eclipse of the Sun, Aug. 7th; by Dr. C. Smallwood 249 On the Plants of the West Coast of Newfoundland ; by Dr. John Bell 256 On Tadoussac Plarits ; by A. T. Drummoxd, B.A., LL.B 264 On Hyponome Sarsii, a recent Cystidean ; by Dr. S. Loven 265 On some results obtained by Dredging in Gaspe and ofl' Murray Bay; by J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S 270 On Microscopic Accessories; by J. Baker Edwards, Ph. D., F.C.S 274 On the Structure of the Cystidea, and Blastoidea; by E. Billings, F.G.S 277 On the Butterfly Fieris rapee : by A. S. Ritchie 293 The introduced ai^d spreading plants of Ontario and Quebec ; by A. T. Drummoxd, B.A., LL.B 377 Volcanoes and Earthquakes ; by Dr T. Sterry Hunt, 387 Description of the Canadian species of Myosotis, with notes on other plants of the natural order Boraginaceas ; by G. Lawsox, Ph. D ., LL.D 298 On the Kanunculacea; of the Dominion of Canada, and of adjacent parts of British America ; by G. H. Lawsox, Ph. D., LL.D 407 Canadian Zoology 411 On the structure of Cystidea and Blastoidea ; by E. Billixgs, F.G.S 426 On souie Points in the Structure and Habits of the PalaBozoic Crinoidea ; by F. B. Mekk and A. H. Worthen 434 On the Existence of Rocks containing Organic Substances in the Fundamental Gneiss of Sweden ; by Messrs. Iglelstrom, Nordexskiold and Ekmax.. 452 On the Geology and Silver Ore of Wood's Location, Thunder Cape, Lake Superior ; Part H ; by Thomas Macfarlane 459 Obituary Notice 477 Americax Association for the Advancement op Science :— Preliminary N otice of Meeting 248 On Two New Genera of Extinct Cetaeea ; by Prof. Cope 320 On the Early Stages of Brachiopods ; by Prof. E. S. Morse 321 Vertebrate ivemains in Nebraska ; by Prof. 0. C. Marsh 322 On tiie Geology of the Coast of Maine ; by Prof. S. W. Johxson 323 Some Notes on the Chemistry of Copper ; by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt 324 Coal and Iron in China ; by Prof. A. S. Bickmore 325 The Mei amorphic Rocks of New Brunswick and Maine 326 On the Geology of North-eastern America ; by Dr. i'. Sterry Hunt 328 On Surface Changes in Maine ; by Dr. N. T. True 328 Evidences of Antiquity in the Kjoekkenmcedden Deposits of N. England 329 On the Rocky Mountain Flora 329 On some ew Mososauroid Fossil Reptiles ; by Piof. Marsh 331 The Natural History Society:— Monthly Meetings 64, 207, 463 Somerville Lectures 66, 208, 228 Conversazione 66 President's Address 66 Address to Sir John Young 69 Annual Meeting 208 Pagk Keport of the Council 209 List of Papers presented 209 Officers for 1869-70 • 216 Treasurer's Account 217 Field-Day at Beloeil 218 The British Association :— The Devonian Group ; by Prof. Godttin-Austin 301 The Granite of Dartmoor ; by G. W. Ormerod 302 The Source of the Miocene Clays ; by W. Pengelly 302 The Brachiopoda of " Hebble-Bed " ; by J. Davidson 303 The Source of some Quartzose Rocks : by Edward Hull 303 On some Fresh -water Deposits ; by H. Woodward 304 The Exploration of Kent's Cavern 304 The Entrance of the Mammoth : by H, Howorth 306 Trappeon Conglomerates ; by M. G. Maw 307 Colour in Birds 30S Report of the Close-term Committee 309 On Deep Sea Dredging '. 310 The Improvement of Cereals ; by F. F. Hallet 314 Geology and Mineralogy :— The Wakefield Cave 71 Geological Time 73 Deep Sea Dredging in its Relations to Geology 78 Calamites and Calamodendron 81 Pre-historic Man in France 85 Note on the Blastoidea 89 Gold Deposits of Nova Scotia 229 Fossil Bivalved Entomostraca 336 Boulder Clay 349 Pre-historic Horses 354 Botany and Zoology :^ English Plant Names 90 Field-Day of the Woodhope Naturalists Field Club .95 Mimicry in Nature 98 The Ordeal Poison-Nut 99 Zoological Notes 101 Mosquitoes in England 103 Plants new to Canada 357 Mosses ne w to Canada 359 The Acrogens of Lake Superior 362 Note on the Name of As pidium spinulosum var. dilatatum 367 Botany of the West Coast of America 378 Spectroscopic Examination of the Diatomaceee 372 Chejustry and Physics :— On Hydraulic Cements 104 On the Decomposition of Granite by Water 106 Oxychloride of Copper 106 Chromic Iron •_ 107 Reduction of Nitrates and Sulphates in certain Fermentations 107 Effects of great Cold on Tin 107 Analjsis of Graphite 107 On Phosphorus in Iron 108 Natural Inflammable Gases 109 Spontaneous Ignition -■- 110 New Chemical Toy Ill Meteorology 112 Meteorological Report for 1868 115 New Explosive Powders 245 Miscellaneous :— Microscopic Illumination 118 Social and Sanitary Science ■ 119 Physiological 120 Sorby's Blow-Pipe Crystals 246 Solar Heat ■ 248 How to Furnish a Fresh-water Aquarium 373 The Microscopic Club 225 Reviews and Notices of Books :— Dr. R. A. Smith's Disinfectants and Disinfection 226 The Entomological Correspondence of Thaddeus W. Harris 332 Mrs. Fitzgibbon's Canadian AVild Flowers 100 Dr. Rabenhorst's European Cryptogams 360 Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects 104 The Canadian Entomologist 104 Le Naturaliste Canadien 119 Biniiey's Flora of the Carboniferous Strata 81 Lartet and Christy's Reliquiae Aquitanicje 85 Plate of Trichinse to face page 179 " of the Eclipse to face page 249 Map of Wood's Location to face page 37 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST AND NOTES OF A VISIT TO SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS AND MUSEUMS IN THE UNITED STATES. By Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.E.S., Metamorphotic." Linnoeus considered that in the structure of the wings, lay the basis of classification. His system was called the " Alary." Fabricius accepted neither of these views ; and on the structure of the organs of the mouth created his system. His system was called the " Maxillary." Latreille, not knowing which to prefer, formed a fourth, combining the three, which he called the " Eclectic." The " Septenary system " is one which is followed by some to a great extent. According to this theory, " in every group of seven, whether the group be large or small, one of the seven is central, and the other six surround it and are each connected with it." All entomologists at the present diy agree with these various systems to a certain extent as invaluable guides to classifica- tion. Leconte's classification comprises ten orders ; this appears to be the most natural division. These orders are again divided into tribes, stirps, families, genera, and species. The order Coleoptera (or beetles) contains, according to Latreille, not less than 25,000 species ; the estimate was made about the year 1800, and included beetles from all parts of the world, as then 1839.] RITCHIE — COLEOPTERA OF MONTREAL. 29 kuowu and described in European cabinets. Since then, accord- ing to the best modern authorities, the number has been more than doubled, and is now set down at 90,000 species. When we imagine each of these species differing in appearance and to a great extent in habits, the question naturally arises, what is the use of so many beetles ? We may divide the whole order into two principal groups ; the Carnivorous and the Herbivorous species, with certain modifica- tions. It would seem that a portion of almost every substance in the animal and in the vegetable kingdom is assigned as food for beetles. Among the carnivorous species we have cannibals, which prey on their fellows ; others enjoy a repast on the remains of some unfortunate field mouse, or small bird, that death has overtaken ; some, as for instance the Dermestes, feed in our kitchens, on lard and bacon, and destroy preserved specimens of Natural History. The last trace of the carnivorous habits may be seen in the ravages of the little beetles which infest the leather binding of books. The Herbivorous division comprises those species which feed on leaves, flowers, fruit, and vegetables. Members of the large family of the Capricornes, feed on the solid wood of our forest trees. The last trace of the herbivorous habit may be seen in certain Scarabceidce which feed on the excrement of herbivorous animals. I shall now briefly notice the several families represented in the li.st. The first in order are the Cicindelidae (or tiger beetles) and very tigers they are, both in their larval and perfect states. They live by stratagem, and as they run and fly well, are more than a match for most insects of their size. They are found in sandy situations, especially when the sun shines. The next family Carabidae, is one of the largest in the order ; beetles of this group are principally carnivorous, some, however, prefer vegetable diet. Calosoma Calidum (commonly known as the ''copper spot") is a good example of this family; it feeds on caterpillars, which it hunts with great avidity. Beetles of the genus Harpalus and Amara feed on vegetables. The distribution of species is very wonderful ; for instance along the stone wall at the quarries, under stones, individuals of the genus Harpalus prevail in great numbers. The genus Brachinus is rare near 30 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Montreal; to this genus belongs those beetles called "Bombar- diers." They have the faculty of emitting volatile discharges, having a very pungent odour, accompanied with a slight noise and with a bluish smoke. They are to be found plentifully at the Back River under stones and decaying trees ; as many as six or seven specimens may be taken under one stone. Four or five discharges are the greatest number I have seen them emit ; after this process the insect appears quite exhausted. Examples of the genus Chlaenius are also very plentiful along the banks of the St. Lawrence ; at the Victoria Bridge, I have secured twenty specimens under one stone, comprising three species. They have a very pungent odour which remains on the hands for some time after washing. The next three families are aquatic, viz., the Dytiscidae (or diving beetles), the Gyrinidae (or whirlgigs), and the Hydrophili- dae. Their food is aquatic larvae and plants ; some of the larger species attack even frogs, and small fish. The foot of the male Dytiscus has long been admired as a microscopic object. The Gyrinidae have two pairs of eyes, which is one pair more than their congeners possess ; they are largely represented in the ponds and streams near the city. The Silphidae (or carrion beetles) may be found feeding in the bodies of dead animals ; they are flat bodied insects and are very useful in removing putrid carcases. The next family Staphylinidae (or rove beetles) contains a great variety of species ; some are microscopic in their dimensions, and none exceed an inch or so in length. These beetles are omnivorous; some feed on decomposing animal and vegetable matter, some on fungi, and others on flowers. 'I he small insects which annoy us by getting into our eyes belong to this family. The U'lsteridae, or "mimic beetles," are the next in order, they are found in excrements, in carcases, and under bark. They have the power of folding their legs close to the body on being- disturbed, so as to counterfeit death. Examples of the family Cucujidce are apparently rare on the Island of Montreal. They are usually found under bark, and some are of a bright scarlet colour. The two specimens I have of Cucvjus davipes were captured on the board walk in St, Urbain St. The Dermistidae, or skin beetles, are a group of insects of small size, generally about three quarters of an inch long. They are very 18G9.] RITCHIE — COLEOPTERA OF MONTREAL. 31 destructive to furs, aud to preserved specimens of natural history. The Bi/rrhidae, or pill beetles, are of an oval shape, and are found in excrement, also under stones and bark. They possess the faculty of drawing up the legs close to the body as in His- teridae, and they remain in this way perfectly quiet as if dead. The Lucanidae, or stag beetles, come next. They are entirely vegetable feeders ; the large species feed mostly on leaves, the smaller on leaves and sap. Some of our largest Canadian beetles belong to this family, as for instance, Passahis cornutus, Lucaniis dama, and Lucanus placidns. Neither of these species are found on the Island of Montreal. They are plentiful in Ontario, flying about oak trees. The smaller species, Plafi/ccrus qacrcus and P. depresses, are found near the city. Next come the Scarabaeidae, a very large group, which feed on almost every thing. Some authors divide this family into, 1st, the ground or true Scarabs, which feed on excrement, 2ndly, tlie chafers and rose beetles, which live on leaves, flowers and sap. The Hermit Beetle, Osmoderma, belongs to this group. The two following families, Bitprestidae and Elateridae, are well represented on the Island. Some of the exotic species are adorned with splendid metallic tints. The Brazilian Buprestidae are gorgeous insects, their wing cases or elytra being very hard. A great many are mounted and sold for breast pins and for other articles of jewellery. A little black insect, about three quarters of an inch long (^Melanoplilla Longipes), belongs to this family. In the warm days of summer it runs about the side-walk, and flies at intervals, alighting generally on the neck, where it bites very keenly, the bite leaving a feeling as if the flesh was burnt with hot sealing wax. The large Elater, Alaus oculatus, has rarely been found here ; one I picked up on the side-walk on St. Paul St. ; — the other was captured on a tree on St. Helen's Island last summer, on the occasion of the field meeting of the Natural History Society. The ftimily Lampijrldae includes the fire flies, a group well represented in the district in question. They occur in great numbers in the early summer, aud feed on the mucus of the birch trees on the mountain. Cleridae is the next family ; it is composed of insects of small size, which are parasitic in their larval state on bees, and in bees and ants' nests. In their imago or perfect state they are found on flowers. 32 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March The family Tenehrionidae contains a number of species that live upon vegetable matter in various conditions. A very common insect, Tenehrio MoUtor, called in its larval state the meal worm, belongs to this family. MeloeideB : to this group belongs the Cantharis Vesicatoria, or Spanish fly. Examples of the genus Meloe are called oil beetles, on account of a yellow oily substance exuding from their joints on their being handled. The different species of weevils or snout beetles, belong to the Curculioiiidce. They feed upon plants, fruits, nuts and seeds, and are peculiar for their having the wing-cases, in many instances, covered with beautiful scales. This family requires careful study, as but little is as yet known of the species belonging to this interesting section. The Longicornes belong to the family Ceramhycidce; this is a very extensive group. They are principally lignivorous, and in their larval and perfect states feed on solid and decayed wood. Members of the genus Leptura are mostly floral species, feeding in their grub state on wood, and in their perfect state on flowers. The leaf-eaters come next; they include the two families ChrysomeUd(B and Cassididoe. These insects feed entirely on the leaves of plants, and are very destructive in gardens. The last family we will mention is the Coccinellidoe (or lady birds) ; they are carnivorous and^are very useful in gardens, rid- ding plants of the small green insects called ApMdce or plant lice. I have cursorily glanced at some of the leading characters represented in the families contained in the list, as regards their habits and their food. In concluding these remarks, I would state that looking at the insect world from an economic point of view, they are worthy the attention of mankind. Tnsiiinificant though insects appear, the wondrous results they bring about, are well known ; the number of hands they keep busy are exemplified by the productions of the silk worm. We are indebted to them for ink, dyes, and lac ; to the bee for honey and wax. Who knows but that an insect may yet be found in Canada that will be the means of developing some sphere of industry ? In medicine we have the blister beetle or Spanish Jly ; that our Canadian Meloe and Epiccmta may secrete Cantharadine I have no doubt, as it is an ally of the blister beetle of commerce. The oily matter exuding from the joints of Meloe warms the tongue con- siderably on applying it to that member. Then look how nature 1869.] RITCHIE — COLEOPTERA OF MONTREAL. 33 apportions her work; how she uses her handmaids. Look at those dead trees that lie decaying in our forests, and see how the agency of these little creatures is called in. They bore into and channel their decaying trunks, and thus allow the action of the atmosphere to hasten their decay, animal matter of all kinds has also many busy little hands and mouths ready to act as scavengers in clearing it away. Lift that dead quadruped or bird that has lain in the sun for a day or two in our streets or fields, the little insects are our friends, for above it, below it, and within it, they are at work and it will soon be gone, thus prevent- ing the spread of gases noxious to the health of man. Every creature has its use, and to know their use is man's province. LIST OF COLEOPTERA TAKEN ON THE ISLAND OP MONTREAL. The list comprises twenty-seven families, one hundred and thirty-three genera, and two hundred and seventeen species. Synonyms are also appended, taken from Le Conte. I am indebted to Dr. Le Conte, of Philadelphia, and through him to Dr. Horn, for his kindness in comparing species, and naming them, and otherwise assisting me in the compilation of this list. CICINDELIDAE. CiNCiNDELA, Linn. patruela JJeJ. (=coiiseiitanca Dej.) sexguttata Fabr. (.=violacea Fabr.) splendida Eentz. {=limbalis var. Lee. =mavginalis var. Dej.) purpurea Oliv. (=mai"{,'inalis Fabr. var. anduboiiii Lee.) vulgaris Say. (=ubliiiuata Dcj. tiivmiuebarka llerbsl.) CARABIDAE. Nebria Latr. pallipes Say. Calosoma Fahr. calidum Fahr. (=var. lepiUum Lee.) CyCHEUS Fahr. Sphaeroderus Dej. Canadensis Ckand. HiEPALIDCE. BrACHINUS Weber. fumans Fahr. (=librator Dej.) conformis Dej. (=l)atruelis Lee.) Lebia Latr. fuscata l)ej. YOL. I. Ctmindis Lair. pilosa Say. (■=pubescens Dej.) Plattnus Bon. sinuatus Lee. (=anclioineims sin. Dej.) extensicoUis Lee. (=teroiiia exten. Hriy. anch. extfu. Dej. melanarius Lee. (=agonuai nielan. Dej. agonum maurum Hald.) frater Lee. cupripennis Lee. (.=ffc;ronia cupr. Say. agomini cupr. Dej.) subcordatus Leo. lutulentus Lee. chaleeus Lee. (=agonum chaleeus Lee.) Pterostichus Bon. PoECiLUS Bon. chalcites Lee. (=tVronia chalcites Say. =poec. Sayl Bcu?;e =poec. chalcites Kirhy. ■=poec. micaiis Chand.) lucublandus Lee. (=feronia luc. Say. ■=poec. luc. Kirby.) Omaseus Ziegl. caudicalis Lee. (=feronia caudicalis Say. =stereocerus caud. Lee.) Argutor Meg. patruelis Lee. •=(feronia patruelis Dej.) Pterostichus Bon. stygicus Leo. (=teronia stygicus Say. =fer bisigillata Harris. =omaseus rugicoilis Hald.) Amara Bon. fallax Lee. Ceha, Zimm. obesa Say. (percusia obesa Hald.) DiPLOCHiLA Bridle. laticollis Lee. (=reinhus laticollis Lee. =r. assimilis Lee.) Anomoolossus Ch. emarginatus Ckand. (=chlaeuius eiiiarg. Say.) Chlaenius Bon. sericeus Say. (=carabus sericeus Forsler) chlorophanus BeJ. tricolor Dej. Agonoderus Dej. pallipes Dcj. (=carabus pallipes Fabr.) Anisodactylus Dej'. discoideus Dej'. Baltimorensis Dej'. (=h. BallimoreusisSay ) No, 1. 34 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Bradycellus Er. rupestris Lee. (=trechus rupestiis S'l)/. ■=acup. eloii^aiuUis licj. =trechus flavipes Kiihy. HarpaluS Latr. viridiaeneus Beauv. (— h. vmais Say. — li. assiniilis Dei. Pennsylvanicus Lee. ("=o. peiins'.lvanicus Degeer =c. bicolo: Fahr. =harp. bicolor Suy ) compar Lee. herbivagus Say. (-=uphoaus mutabilis HaM. =var. li. proximus Lee.) Stenolophps Dej. ochropezus Dej. (=I.TOiiia Ofhrop°zus Say. =var. s. convexicoUisiec) Bembidium Latr. nigrum Say. PeryphuS Meg. striola Lee. (=cjcliiliL'diomus stri Lee.) lucidum Zee. (=uctithedromus luc. Lee. ■=var. o. substrictus Lee.) rupestre Dej. (=Cirabus rupestre Latr. ■=bem. tetracolum Say. =var. rupicola Kirby.) NoTAPHUS Meg. patruele Dej. LoPHA Meg. quadrimaculatum Gyll. (■=cicimleia ciuadri. Linn. ■=bpmb. oppositum Say.) pedicillatum Lee. DYTISCIDAE. IIalIPLOS Latr. immaculicollis Harris. (=h. aiuericauus Auhe. Cnemidotus III. edentulus Lee. Hydeopoeus Clairv. lacustris Say. (=h. pulicarius Aube.) modestus Aube. (=■11. ruiiceps Auhe. Laccophilus Leach. maculosus Say. (=d,vtiscu-i macu. Germ.) proximus Saj/. C-=lac. aintricanus Auhe.) CoLYMBETES Clairv. Cymatopteeus Each. seminiger Lee, exaratus Lee. binotatus Harris. ^=I^acullicoUis Auhe.) AciLius Lecich. praternus Lee. (=dytiscus I'rater., Harris. -=ac. St'UHSUlcafus, Aube.) Dytiscus Linn. anxius Mann. fasciventris Say. (-=carolinus Aube.) harrissii Kirby. verticalis Say. GYRINIDAE. Gyrinus Linn. —not determined. DiXEUTES McLeay. — not determined. HYDROPHILIDAE. Hydeophilus Geoff r. Teopisteenus Sol. glaber Herbst. Hydrochaeis Latr. obtusatus Lee. (=h.vdro,jUilis obtu. Say.) Berosus Leach. striatus Say. Ceecyon Leaeh. flavipes, Er. Ceyptopleurum 3Iuls. vagans Lea. SILPHIDAE. Neceophurus Fabr. orbicollis, Say. (.=hallii Kirby. ~var. tibialis Lee.) velutinus Fabr. n tumeiitosus Weber. SiLPHA Linn. Necrodes Wilkin. surinamensis Fabr. Thanatophilus Leaeh. Lapponica Herbat. (.=caudata Say. =tuberculala Lee. ■=graniKera CIteor.) Marginalis Fabr. (=iiove boracensis Forster.) inequalis Fabr. NeceophiIuA Kirby. peltata Lee. (=scarabeus pelt. Cateshy. =silpha ameiicana, Linti. =var. o. terminat. Kirby. =var. o. afflne Kirby. ■=var. o. canadense Kirby STAPHYLINIDAE. Aleochara Grav. —undetermined. CoPROPOEUS Kraatz. ventriculus Kraatz. (=tacliinus ventriculus Er. ■=var.t. punctulatus J)le?s.) Taohintjs Grav. fumipennis Er. (=.tachyporus fiimip. Say. Tachtporus Grav. jocosus Say. (=arduus £r.) CoNOSOMA Kraatz. crassum Lee. (=tach. crassum Grav. -^coiun-us crassus iV.) QuKDius Stephens. molochinus Er. (=staiili. niolocbinus Grav. ■=s. laticollis Grav.) Creophilus Stephens. (=stapli villo-sus Grav.) viilosus Kirby. Leistotrophus Perty. cingulatus Kraatz. i=staijli. ciiiKulatus Grav. =s. cbrysurus Kirby. ■=s. spcciosus Mann.) Staphylinus Linn. cinnamopterus Grav. badipes Lee. Philonthus Curtis. debilis Er. (=stapli. debilis Grav.) LATHROBI0M Grav. —undetermined, —undetermined. Cryptobium Mann. bicolor Er. (=iatUrobium bic. Grav.) Paederus Grav. littorarius Grav. OxYTELUS Grav. sculptus Grav. (=moerens 3Iels.) HISTERIDAE. IIiSTER, Linn. foedatus Lee. Platy.sioma Leaeh. Lecontei Mars. coarctatus Lee. NITIDULIDAE. NrriDULA Fabr. bipustulata Fabr. Omosita Er. colon Er. (=silpha colon Linn. =nitidula colon Fabr.) IPS Fabr. fasciatus Say. (=nitidula fasciata Oliv.) sanguinolentus Say. C=uitidula sanguiu. Oliv.) CUCUJIDAE. CUCUJUS Fabr. clavipes Fabr. DERMESTIDAE. Dermestes Liim. lardarius Linn. Attagknus Latr. megatoma Er. C=derniestes megat. Fahr. byrriiidae. Cytilus Er. varius Er. (=byrrlius varius Fabr. =b trivattatus Mels. =var. b. alteruatus, Say.) Byrehtis Linn. Amerioanus Lee. 1869.] RITCHIE — COLEOPTERA OF MONTREAL. 35 LUCANIDAE. Plattcerus Geoffr. quercus Sch. (=lucanus Quercus Weher. =pl. secuviilcns Say. depressus Lee. SCARABAEIDAE. Onthophagus Latr. latebrosus Sturm. Aphodius 111. TeUCHESTES Mills. fossor Fab. { =scarabaens fossor Linn.) fimetarius 111. (=sear. tlmeta'"ius Linn. =apli. uodifrous Randall.) EuPARiA Lep. —undetermined. GrEOTRUPES Lulr. MELOLONTHIDAE. HOPLIA 111. trifaseiata Suy. l=prima'ia Burm. =helvoIa Meh. =tristis Mels.) DiCHELONTCHA Kirhy, eloDgatula, Fitch. C=inelo. elongatula Schonh. =nielo. hexagona Germ. =dit;b. elonga a Buna.) Serica McLean. Camptorhina Kirhy. vespertina Lee. (=melulontlia vesp. Schonh. Lachxosterna Hope. fusca Lee. (=melolontha fusca Frohl. =mel. quercUia Kroch. =mel. fervens GijU. =1. querciua Lee.) LiGYRUS Burm. relictus Lee. (=scarabaeus relictus Say. =heteronychus rel. Burin. =bothyuus rel. Lee.) Xyloryctes Hope. satyr us Burm. (=geotmpes satyrus Fabr. =scaratiaeus satyrus 01. -=s. nasicornis a.m. Beam.) OSMODERMA Lep. eremicola Bej. (=cetoniaereiMlcola Knoch. trlchius scabra Beativ. (=gymnO'ius fov. Kirhy. =gyni. rugosus Kirby.) Trichiub Fahr. iflSnis Gory. (•=as.similis Kirby. ■=bistriga Newman. -=var. virUlans Kirby.) BUPRESTIDAE. DiCERCA Each. divaricata Lee. (=bup. divaricata Say, =dicerca dubia Meis. =di. aiirichalcea Mels. =d.. parumimi.ctata Mels) tenebrosa Lee. (=bup. teuebrosa Kirby. AxCYLOCHiRA Each. fasciata DeJ. (=bup. fasciata Fabr. =bnp. I') maculata Uerbst.) consularis Vej. (=biip. consularis Gory.) maculiventris Lee. (=bup. macuUveutris Say. =bup. sexnotata Lap. rusticorum Lee. (=bup. rusticorum Kirby.) Melanophixa Esch. longipes Gory. (=bu|.'. long pes Say. =apatura append. Lap. =inel. inimaculata Gi,ry. Chrysobothris Eseh. dentipes Lee. (=bup. dentipes Germ. =b. characteristica //ams) ELATERIDAE. Adelockra Latr. marmorata Germ. (■=ela'.er marmorata Fabr.) obtecta, Leo. (=elater obtectus Say.) AlauS Each. oculatus Esch. (=elatcr oculatus Linn.) Elates Limi. linteus Say. (=anippdus lugubris Germ) vitiosus Lee. carbonicolor Mann. Drasterius Each. dorsalis Lee. (=elater dorsalis Say. =monocrepidiu8 dor. Lee. =aeolus dorsalis Cancl.) DOLOPIUS Each. pauper Leo. Melanotus Ench. fissilis, Lae. (=cratonychus laticollis Er. =cr. ochraceipennis Mels. =cr. spheroidalis 3Iels.) AthouS Esch. cucullatus Cand. (=el. cucullatus Say. ■=ath. hypoleucus Mela. =ath. procerlcollis Mels. =ath. strigatus Meh.) CORYllBITES Latr. aeripennis Lee. (■=el. aeripennis Kirby. =el. aiipropinquans Band) cylindriformis Germ. (=el. cylindiiloiniis /TerW. =el. Hiipri'SsilronsSaj/. =el. brevicornis Saj/. -=cor. parallelop. Germ.) Ternalis Germ. (=Blater verualis Hentz.) tarsalis Lee. (=athous tarsalis Mels.) spinosus Lee. sagitticoUis Lee. (=pristiiophus sag. Esch.) ASAPHES Kirby. baridius Lee. (=elater baridius Say. =beuiic. tliomasi Germ.) LAMPYRIDAE. Photinus Lap. Ellychnia Lee. corruscus Lac. (=lampyris corrusca Linn. =el. .atipeimis Motach.) TELEPIIORIDAE. Chauliognathus Hentz. Pennsylvanicus Lee. (=telepliorus penn DeGeer =cantli. rmer Forster. =canth. bimaculata Fabr. ■=cha. biniaculalus Hentz.) PuDABRUS Westra. BrachynotuS Kirby. rugosulus Lee. Telephorus Schaffer. Curtisii Kirby. Reagonycha Eiich. Carolinus Lee. (=cantbaris carolinus Fah. .=rhd. carolinus Motsch.) CLERIDAE. Trichodes Herbst. Nuttalli Klufj. (=clerus uuttalli Kirby ) CleruS Geoffr. Thanasuius S2nn. nubilus King. TENEBRIONIDAE. BlapstinuS Waterh. metallicus, Lee. (=blaps. mellicus Fabr. =opatrum inferrupt. Say. =b. aeneolus Mels. =t». interruptus Lee. =b. luridus Muls ) Haplandrus Lee. femoratus Lee. (=lrogosita feniorat. Fabr. =tenebrio femorat. Beauv. =upis fulvipes Herbst.) UpiS Fabr. ceramboides Fabr. (■=t.en. ceramboides Linn. =u. reticulata Say.) NyCtobates Lee. Pennsylvanica Lee. (=ten. pennsylva. DeGeer. =upis chrysops Herbst. =teu. subiaevis Beauv.) Iphthujus Truqui. opacus Lee. Tenebrio Linn. molitor Linn. 36 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcli BOLETOTHKRUS Cund. cornutus Oanddze. {=boleotophagus cor. Fabr. =opatrum cor. Panzer.) DiAPERia Geoff. hydni Fabr. (=maculata Olio.) MELANDRYIDAE. MelANDRYA Fabr. striata Say. C=var. excavata Hahl.) MELOIDAE. Meloe Linn. rugipennis Lee. augusticoUis, Sau. Macrobasis Lee. Fabricii Lee. OEDEMERIDAE. Nacerdes Schmidt. melanura Schmidt. (=cautliaris melanura Linn =necyaalis notata Fabr. »=oed. analis Oliv. =oed. apicalis Say.) CERAMBYCIDAE, Criocephalus Mids. agrestis Kirby. Arhopalus. Fpeciosus Say. pictus Vrury. Callidium Fabr. janthinum Lee. Clytus Fabr. undulatus Say. ruricola Oliv. catnpestris OHv. ei-ythrocephalus Fabr. muricatulus Kirby. EXDEECES. picipes Fabr. Graphisurus. pusillus Kirbi/. i'asciatus BeGi-er. MONOHAMMUS, Lntr. scutellatus Say. eonfusor Kibry. Saperda, Fabr. ealcarata Saji. lateralis Uald. vestita Say. Desmocerus Serv. palliatus Forstd. AcMEOPS Lee. proteus Kirby. Typocerus. sinuatus Newman. Leptura Linn. canadensis Fabr. Trigonarthris. proxima Sai/. CHRYSOMELIDAE. DoNACiA Fabr. subtilis Kunze. Lejia. trilineata Oliv. Chelymorpha. cribraria Fab. Cassida Herbst. bicolor Fabr. guttata Fabr. DiABROTICA Chev. vittata Fabr. Oedionychis Latr. thoracica Fabr. DORYPHOEA. trimaculata Say. Chrysomela Lmn. scalaris Lee. labyrinthica Lee. bi^'sbyana Kirby. trivittata Say. polygoni Linn. Paria. 4-notata Say. Chrysochus. auratus Fabr. Cryptocephalus, Geoff. Lee. COCCINELLIDAE. Hippodamia. 13-punctata Linn. parenthesis Say. COCCINELLA Linn. 9-notata Herbst. lecontei (var). bipunctata Linn. Mysia Muls. 15-punctata Oliv. Chilocorus licaeh. bivulnerus Mels. PSYLLOBORA. 20-maculata Say. Brachycantha. ursina Fabr. EROTYLIDAE. Engis. 4-maculata Say. SECT! on ON LINE A B %mmm%m%m w^' WOODS LOCAIIOK .B^ 'rfi„w„s Miutinhtiie '^ H K M S ^ EXf'LAKATlOSS (inn iinjilhiavlix Mi itl.slohm ami .S'hiilr.s I'uliilliiliirlKl,- li,:l,„„l „/iit.- dnin tutu S,,ii,l-,l„i„s ,11,,/ S/„i/,s (lierli/ l.inii.stwif /// n/„/, \,„„lsl,„„ lli„nl, lliiiimlr ,1/1, / f.iiii/. .ln..,,l,.,. /■.„,,l„„, .\i,i„i/,,,,„u.^ i:,, l.fiA, I, Vi,,/////n ,(//, 1 .llhnitii,, r/„'/u„ „ 1, y/„„s II r ^Inl.,- , //l,-,/,/,„//A,' ■■./tri/ AV-,,,,/,™ /.„„..,. lluis /^" ^ "" 1869.] MACFARLANE — GEOLOGY 01 LAKE SUPERIOR. 37 ON THE GEOLOGY AND SILVER ORE OF WOODS LOCATION, THUNDER CAPE, LAKE SUPERIOR. By Thomas Macfarlane. Part I.* During the summer of 1868, aa exploring party, under my charge, was sent by the Montreal Mining Company to examine their mineral lauds on Lake Superior. On one of their properties, Woods Location, near Thunder Cape, a silver vein of some promise was discovered, and a good deal of attention was paid to the geology of its neighbourhood. The results of my observations are, with the permission of the Directors of the Company, made the subject of the present paper. The accompanying map shews the geology of that part of the location lying nearest the lake. The stratified or derived rocks which are found upon it, and which are indicated by the five first colours under the word " Reference," belong to Sir W. E. Logan's Upper Copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, the age of which is, perhaps, still a matter of doubt. The lowest group of this series found upon the location consists of grey argillaceous sandstones and shales, coloured lilac on the map. A general description of these will be found on page 68 of the Geology of Canada, to which I have to append the following additional particulars. The sandstone layers, varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet, are invariably small or fine-grained, and occasionally shew narrow, indistinctly limited bands of light and dark grey, running in planes parallel with the stratification. A specimen from Location Bay, more closely examined, yielded the following results. Before the blow-pipe it fuses at the edges to a greyish white enamel, and the adjacent parts become lighter coloured and slightly brownish. Hydrochloric acid causes a very slight elFervescence. The powder is slightly reddish, or brownish grey, and on being examined chemically, gave the following results : — Silicious matter (insoluble in Hydrochloric Acid and dilute Potash ley). So 09 Matrix — Protoxide of Iron 4 08 Alumina 4 • 86 Carbonate of Lime i 15 Carbonate of Magnesia o • 56 Silica 480 Carbonaceous matter and water (loss on ignition) 1-75 Alkalis, etc. (by difference) 2-71 10000 Interstratified with such sandstones, there are sometimes found • The map will appear with the second part of this paper. — Ed. 38 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll beds of a more calcareous nature, but, as Sir W. E. Logan remarks, "few of tliem pure enough to be entitled to the appellation of limestone." A specimen from a bed of this nature yielded the following results : — Silicious matter 57 '3° Soluble in Acid — Protoxide of Iron 3 "45 Alumina 2-36 Carbonate of Lime i9'88 Carbonate of Magnesia I'HS Soluble in Alkali — Silica 3 '44 Carbonaceous matter and water (by difference) 2-12 100 '00 With the sandstones there are frequently interstratified shaly layers, generally of a darker colour, which behave before the blow- pipe like the sandstone above mentioned, but never shew the slightest effervescence with acid. On analysis, a specimen gave : — Carbonaceous matter (loss on ignition) 2^04 Silicious matter 65 ■ 7 1 Soluble in Acid — Protoxide of Iron 7-20 Alumina 8 • 58 Magnesia o'43 Soluble in dilute Potash ley— Silica II '56 Alkalis, etc. (by difference) 4-48 100 '00 These sandstones and shales are, for the most part, very evenly and regularly stratified, and only in the neighbourhood of the inter- secting dykes are they at all contorted. In some places they appear almost horizontal, but they generally shew a dip of from 3° to 6° to the east or south of east. Nothing resembling trans- verse cleavage was found in these sandstones or shales, and, even in the latter, the schistose structure, which is developed by weathering, is more of a flaggy than of a slaty nature. The vertical jointing, mentioned by Sir "VV. E. Logan, is visible at almost every exposure of these sandstones and shales on the location. In this respect, and in general lithological characters, they much resemble the sandstones which occur to the north and south of Point aux Mines, on the east shore of the lake, and which, there, appear to overlie unconformably the traps and conglomerates of Maimanse. Immediately and conformably overlying the sandstones and 1869. J MACFARLANE — GEOLOGY OP LAKE SUPERIOR. 39 shales just mentioned, there is found a conglomci-ate bed from two to six feet thick (marked on the map yellow, with brown spots). The pebbles are generally quartzite, red coloured and jasper-like, and the matrix consists of coarse-grained red coloured sand. Ked and white sandstones, coloured yellow on the map, succeed the conglomerate. The white sandstones make up the greater part of this group, but in many parts of its thickness, and especially in the part immediately overlying the conglomerate, layers of red sandstone are interstratified with the white beds, and the latter frequently shew spots and irregular patches of red. Sometimes, similar spots of white are observed in the red sand- stone layers. The colouring matter of the red sandstone is peroxide of iron, and the difference in composition between it and the white is shewn in the following analysis. I. is the composition of a red-coloured, and II that of a white portion of a specimen, from a ridge of sandstone lying between Camp and Fork Bays: — I. IL Silica, insoluble in Hydrochloric Acid 73 '45 72 So Peroxide of Iron, with a little Alumina 2-41 o.gi Carbonate of Lime . 13 '04 Carbonate of Magnesia 10-94 ii'94 99'34 98-78 It will be observed that the cementing material of these sand- stones has almost exactly the composition of dolomite. Sandstones of this composition are probably not unfrequeut among the Potsdam and Calciferous rocks of Canada, but, in Europe, they are described as belonging exclusively to the Buntsaudstein formation (Zirkel, Petrographie, ii., 581). In the upper part of the group, red shales are found in great quantity, interstratified with the sandstone, and apparently approaching in composition to the indurated marl hereafter to be described. This group of '' red and white dolomitic sandstones and shales" has a general dip of 7° to 15° eastward. The sandstones very frequently shew ripple marks on the surfaces of the beds. A bed of limestone, from two to six feet thick, coloured blue on the map, overlies conformably the group first described. In the upper part, it appears brecciated from intermixed cherty fragments, but in the lower part it is more crystalline. Immediately overlying the limestone, and beautifully exposed on the shore eastward from Red Bay, there comes a considerable development of the indurated marl mentioned by Sir W. E. Loo-an 40 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Murcll on page 70 of the Geology of Canada. This rock is fine- grained and compact, generally of a yellowish grey colour, with red patches. Where the latter colour predominates, the rock assumes a slaty structure. The reddish-coloured spots or patches have generally a rounded contour, and although they sometimes resemble rounded fragments or boulders, it is found, on breaking them, that they consist of the same fine-grained material as the marl itself, diifering from it only in colour. Occasionally, other enclosures occur in this rock, which seem more distinctly separated from it, some of them resembling pieces of the shaly sandstones of the lower group, but purple coloured. They are doubtless of a fragmentary nature. Specimens of indurated marl from Island No. 6 were subjected to analysis, the light coloured (I) and reddish portions (II) being examined separately. I. II. Silica (insoluble in Hydrochloric Acid and Potash lye). . 5077 53-27 Peroxide of Iron and Alumina 2-48 5'78 Carbonate of Lime 34'43 21-00 Carbonate of Magnesia 7-68 1343 Silica 3-28 3 48 Water i'7g 2-04 100-43 99-00 On the eastern extremity of the location, the indurated marl is overlaid by white sandstone again, and this rock appears to be the highest in geological position upon the property. These stratified rocks are intersected by numerous dykes of various thicknesses, running generally parallel with each other in a north-east and south-western course. Their outcrops are most numerous in the western part of the location, where they, and the enclosing argillaceous sandstones and shales, have been so acted on by the waters of the lake as to expose plainly their mutual relations. The dykes are coloured green on the map, and it will be plainly seen from it, that they, to a very considerable extent, determine the outline of the shore. The longer lines upon the coast run generally parallel with the strike of these dykes ; the hard rocks of the latter invariably form the projecting points and headlands, while the bays are cut out of the softer stratified rocks. Although the dykes are best exposed among the grey sandstones, many of them can be followed into the area occupied by the red and white sandstones, where they are found to inter- sect these also. They are always either vertical or inclined at 1869.] MACFARLANE — GEOLOGY OP LAKE SUPERIOR. 41 high angles, the dip in the latter case being generally to the south-east, but sometimes also to the north-west. They vary in thickness from a few feet to nearly a hundred, and they sometimes exhibit interesting phenomena as to joints of separation. Irre- gular columnar separation at right angles to the inelination is frequently observed, but it is on a ponderous scale, and although it reminds one of trappean jointing, it is not at all so regular. Sometimes the dykes are split up into large square blocks, or into large flat pieces, with their planes parallel to the sides of the dyke. Although the direction above given for these dykes is the prevailing one, it will be seen from the map that some of them have courses more or less divergent from this strike; indeed, some small dykes are to be seen branching off from the main ones. The rocks which constitute these dykes belong to the diorite family, but are capable of being subdivided into several species, according to the nature of the felspar they contain. The recog- nition of their constituent minerals is a matter of some difficulty, as they are, for the most part, small, or fine-grained. No instance was observed of a coarse or large-grained rock among these dykes, although a very distinct porphyritic rock was met with. As examples of the various species of rocks constituting these dykes, the three following may be particularized. Diorite. — The nearest approach to this species is the rock constituting Silver Islet. It is distinctly composed of a greenish black and a white mineral, the former being, however, duller in lustre and less hard than the hornblendic constituent of the rocks of many of the other dykes. Quartz is occasionally detected, copper and iron pyrites and a grain or two of schiller spar, also. Its specific gravity is 2-713 to 2-711. Its powder is greenish grey, changing on ignition to leather- brown, and yielding water. On digestion with hydrochloric acid, and then with weak potash ley, 52-6 per cent, of a residue is left, which is almost pure white in colour. The following is an analysis of the rock, shewing the composition both of the soluble and insoluble part: — Water 5-02 Soluble part— Silica 15" II Alumina 582 Ferrous Oxide Lime Magnesia 1-50 41-67 46.69 42 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Insoluble part— 46.69 Silica 3823 Alumina 9 ' 65 Ferric Oxide 2.83 Lime 057 Magnesia 0-33 Alkalis (by difference) 0-99 52 • 60 99-29 From this analysis it would appear that almost the whole of the hornblende has been converted into a chloritic mineral. The insoluble, probably, consists of the felspathic constituent mixed with the quartz contained in the rock. The small rocky island called Pyritic Island, lying to the north of Great Shaginah Island, consists of diorite. In the centre, and running along its length, is a band of the same rock about thirty feet wide, more or less impregnated with copper, magnetic and iron pyrites. CoRSlTE. — By far the greater number of the rocks forming the dykes consist of a small-grained mixture of glittering hornblende in large quantity, with felspar, which, being easily decomposable by acids, is probably anorthite. The specific gravity of these rocks varies from 2*934 to 3-085. They sometimes shew a warty appearance on the surface, especially when much weathered, and, occasionally, they are found to break up entirely into small friable pebbles. Islet No. 5, although it seems to be part of the same intrusive mass as Silver Islet, consists of a rock with the mineralogical composition of corsite. It is small-grained and crystalline, shewing abundance of small glittering faces, belonging to its black-coloured constituent, which preponderates over the lighter-coloured felspathic grains. Its specific gravity is 2-916 to 2-933. Its powder has a slate-grey colour, which, on ignition, changes to dark brown. On digestion with hydrochloric acid, and afterward with dilute potash ley, it leaves 43-64 per cent, insoluble matter of a dark grey colour, and having a specific gravity of 2-955. The following is an analysis of the rock, the compositions of the soluble and of the insoluble portions having been separately ascertained: — 46.69 Soluble Part— Silica 21-77 Alumina 1 1 - 6g Ferrous Oxide 13 '5° Lime 3 99 Magnesia 1-75 52-70 1869.J MACFARLANE — GEOLOGY OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 43 52-70 Insoluble Part — Silica 24 '39 Alumina 3 • 78 Ferrous Oxide 11 "38 Lime 3 '42 Magnesia 0-67 43-64 Water 315 315 99-49 The composition of the insoluble portion, calculated to 100 parts, is as follows : — Silica 55-88 Ferrous Oxide 2609 Alumina 8'66 Lime 7 ' 84 Magnesia 1-53 100 '00 Judging from these figures, and the appearance of the black constituent in the rock itself, it would appear reasonable to regard it as basaltic hornblende. The large quantity of mineral present, decomposable by acid, would lead to the inference that the felspathic constituent is anorthite, although, doubtless, some chloritic substance is decomposed and dissolved with it. The presence of anorthite in these fine-grained rocks is confirmed by its occurring in some of them in well-developed crystals, constituting the rock which is referred to on page 72 of the Geology of Canada, and which is next de^ciibed. Anoethite porphyry. — The dyke which forms the rocky islets, marked 1, 2, and 3 on the map, and which runs along the south-east side of Burnt Island, consists of this rock, although the anorthite crystals are but sparingly distributed. The most characteristic development of this porphyry occurs on the shore between Location Bay and Perry's Bay, constitutes Anorthite Islet, and then joins the mainland on the east side of Perry's Bay. The size of the crystals varies from one-quarter-inch to several inches in diameter ; they are beautifully striated, and aggregations of them, two or three feet in diameter, are of frequent occurrence on Anorthite Islet. Indeed, at a distance, the rock of this islet resembles a breccia, so great is the number and size of the masses of anorthite. These masses seem to have been formed by the crowding together of numbers of anorthite crystals, and some of the spaces between these seem to have been subsequently filled up by quartz. The specific gravity of the mineral from these masses is 2-737. It was analysed by digestion 44 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll with hydrochloric acid, which separated sihca, which was after- wards dissolved out from the insoluble by weak potash lye. It was found to contain : — Silica 45 ■ 13 Alumina 33 '92 Lime 17 02 Insoluble 4 '46 100-53 The mineral probably contains also a small quantity of soda, as it colours the blow-pipe flame strongly yellow. The anorthite crystals frequently contain small brownish specks, and the matrix of the rock consists of a small-grained mixture of these with the anorthite. Sometimes a larger individual is perceived with a brownish black colour and glittering faces, and, besides such, there are dark green grains of chlorite, and occasional specks of iron pyrites. A piece of the rock, weighing 30'455 grammes, had a specific gravity of 2-806. The influence of these dykes upon the bedded strata which they intersect is very marked. Both the argillaceous and the dolomitic sandstones become hardened and silicified, and enabled much more effectually to resist disintegrating influences. In many places, where they have been much acted on by the waters of the lake, the altered part of the sandstones is found remaining and adhering to the dyke, while traces of the unaltered strata are visible only among the debris on the shore. Instances are also to be found where the bedded strata have been much contorted in the neighbourhood of the dykes. One instance was observed of the rock of a dyke enclosing fragments of granite and quartzite, the longer dimensions of which run parallel with the side of the dyke. This dyke is the first one met with on the shore to the west of Boulder Point. There are numerous veins on the location, connected, for the most part, with the dykes which have just been described. It may be doubted whether these veins, the most of which are indicated upon the map, possess in every case the characters of true metalliferous veins. Some of them appear to be mere fillings up of the separation joints in the rock of the dyke. Others, which appear more promising, are of greater width, and run parallel with the dykes, but were not observed to contain anything more valuable than specks of iron and copper pyrites. A third variety of vein, which is perhaps the most important, 1869.J MACFARLANE — GEOLOGY OP LAKE SUPERIOR. 45 crosses the general course of the dykes, aud it is to this class that the vein belongs in which silver, to a considerable extent, was discovered. This vein occurs en a small island, marked Silver Islet on the map, and distant about a mile from the main store. This islet (No. 4), the reef and larger island (No. 5) to the eastward, and the still larger isiand to the south-westward, marked Pyritic Island, appear to be all that remains of a large dyke or mass of diorite, which in all likelihood intersected the sedimentary strata which, in former times, occupijd the space between the islet and the mainland. The width cf this intrusion of diorite is at least 100 feet, but may be more in depth, as a good part of its thick- ness must have been worn away by the action of the waves of the lake. The nature of the rock of the islet has been ah-eady described. It differs from most of the rocks of the other dykes, not only mineralogically, but, also, in being destitute of the divisional jointing which so frequently characterizes them. A few square yards only of the islet, at its highest part, six feet above the level of the lake, shew any traces of vegetation. The remainder has been smoothed and rounded off by the action of the water, and here the rock seems exceedingly compact, no fissures being perceived. On the map will be found a plan, on a larger scale, of this islet, shewing the position and course of the vein which traverses it. The course of the vein is N. 32° to 35° W., and it dips to the eastward at an angle of about 80°. It has a width of about twenty feet on the north side of the island, and to the southward divides into two branches, each seven to eight feet wide. It consists mainly of calcspar and quartz. Galena, in little cubes, is visible in almost every part of it, and blende, iron and copper pyrites are not uncommon. The native silver, accom- panied by silver glance, was only found in the west branch. It was first noticed by Mr. John Morgan, one of the exploring party, in the shape of small nuggets, on the east side of the vein. It was then traced to the water's edge, and out into the water for some distance, where, instead of merely scattered nuggets of native silver, large patches of veinstone, rich in galena, are visible, which galena, on closer examination, is found to be intermixed with small particles, and some large nuggets of silver. The thickness of the rich part of the voin varies from a few inches to two feet, and it keeps to the east or hanging side of the vein. By working in the water with crow-bars, some loose pieces of rich veinstone were 46 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March detached, and in this way, as well as from one blast on the island, 1,336 lbs. of ore were obtained. This quantity of ore was sent to Montreal, where, in the month of December, it was carefully weighed and sampled. The richest pieces, varying in weight from a few ounces to 41 pounds, were picked out, weighing in all 93|^ lbs. Eight of these, supposed to represent the average, were placed in sealed bags and marked sample No. 1. A large piece of veinstone, measuring three feet by twelve to sixteen inches by six to twelve inches, and weighing 481 lbs., was sampled by drilling six holes through it at points as nearly as possible equidistant from each other. The borings, quartered down in the usual manner and then ground and well mixed together, constituted sample No, 2. The fragments of ore of ordinary quality, weighing 250f lbs., were sampled by chipping oft" pieces from them. The pieces, ground to powder and quartered down, made sample No. 3. The remainder of the ore was broken down into small pieces and well mixed with the ore which had broken off the larger fragments. It weighed 511 lbs., and was regularly quartered down, the resulting sample being ground fine, well mixed, and marked No. 4. Eight portions of each of the powdered samples were placed in sealed bottles, all properly labelled. The following table gives the results obtained by Professor Chapman, Dr. Hayes, and myself in assaying the various samples, the ton being taken at 2240 lbs., and the value of silver at §1.24 per ounce troy. This value is based upon the price recently quoted in England for bar silver, namely 5s. Ofd. per oz. : — Per Centages. No. I. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Average. Professor. Chapman 1496 788 527 i'7i S'S^S Dr. Hayes 4117 11-26 5-82 i-i8 8-471 T. Macfarlane i3'i4 73 4'94 i'82 5-168 Ounces per Ton. No. I. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Average. Professor Chapman 4,886 2.574 i>72i 55S 1,804 Dr. Hayes 15,064 3,678 1,901 385 2,767 T. Macfarlane 4,292 2,384 1,613 594 1,690 Silver Values per Ton. No. I. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Average. Professor Chapman $5,058 ;?3,i9i ^2,134 $691 $2,236 Dr. Hayes 18,679 4.560 2,357 477 3,431 T. Macfarlane 5,332 2,956 2,000 736 2,095 If the -average of these amounts be taken, it amounts to 6-387 per cent, silver = 2087 ounces, or |2,587.88 per ton of 2,240 1869.] MACFARLANE — GEOLOGY OP LAKE SUPERIOR. 47 lbs. The following experiments on samples Nos. 2 and 4 are confirmatory of the results of the assays : — 1000 parts of No. 2 yielded, on being washed on the German ' Sicher trog,' 275 parts of ore, containing 24-82 per cent, silver; 1000 parts of No. 4, yielded on similar treatment, 87 parts washed ore, assaying 15-9 per cent, silver. On the strike of the vein of Silver Islet, to the north-westward, two veins are seen to intersect the argillaceous sandstones which form the projecting part on the south-east side of Burnt Island. These sandstones are here much harder than usual, having resisted well the action of the waves. This is owing to their being penetrated by numerous thin veins of quartz, which mineral appears also to have permeated and hardened the side rock. The dip of the sandstones is 9^^ towards N. 58^^ E. Generally the veins are mere coatings of quartz on the vertical joints, but sometimes they are about an inch, and even three inches thick, showing cavities lined with quartz crystals. The most western of the large veins shews sometimes a thickness of seven or eight inches of quartz, but consists on the whole of a network of quartz veins enclosing fragments of the hardened sandstone. Galena, blende and iron pyrites are observed accom- panying the quartz, but, although native silver was diligently sought for, none was found. On washing the galena from 1000 parts of this veinstone, 181 parts were obtained, containing 0-04 per cent, silver, or 13-052 oz. per ton. This quantity is of course too small to pay for working the vein. The strike of the latter is about S. 30° E., which direction points straight to the west side of Silver Islet. Its dip is SO'^ N.E. The eastern vein is filled mostly with calcspar, and contains galena also, 106 parts of which were washed out of 1000 of veinstone. The washed ore contained only a trace of silver. These veins seem to continue across Burnt Island, and are met with on the mainland, where small grains of galena are seen in them. They are more likely to be argentiferous where they intersect the dykes ; but at these points large crevices filled with large stones and earth are invari- ably found. With regard to the agricultural capabilities of the location, they are not very extraordinary. A large part of its area is occupied by the red sandstones, having only a covering of moss and scarcely any soil upon them, neither is there any soil upon the rocky ridges formed by the dykes. The indurated marl and 48 THE CANADIAN NATURALISE'. [Marcll the grey sandstones yield here and there some land which, on cultivation, might supply a few of the wants of a mining popula- tion. The lake itself, however, with its abundant supply of beautiful fish, would do far more to furnish food for the miners than any farms which it might be possible to establish on shore. The timber upon the location, although seldom of a size to furnish good saw-logs, would nevertheless be abundant for mining purposes. Balsam, spruce, cedar, and birch predominate. There are a few pines and poplars, and in the north-east part some tamarac. Maple is absent altogether. Since, therefore, the location is comparatively valueless for farming and lumbering purposes, it is to be hoped that the development of its mineral wealth will be taken in hand in a vigorous but judicious manner and carried to a successful issue. The only considerable mining settlement yet made in the district of Algoma — that of Bruce Mines— owes its establishment to the enterprise and money (however injudiciously expended) of the Montreal Mining Co. May their exertions towards creating a remunerative industry in this barren region be, in the future, attended with more substantial rewards to the adventurers than heretofore. Actonvale, February 20th, 1869. ON THE MARINE MOLLUSC A OF EASTERN CANADA. By J. F. "VThiteaves, F.G.S., etc. Our knowledge of the distribution of the mai-ine mollusca in Lower Canada is still very limited. In 1858 Principal Dawson published in this Journal (vol. iii., p. 329) a list of shells collected by him in Gaspe Bay ; the number of species recorded is thirty-eight. In 1859 Prof. II . Bell gave a list of sixty-seven marine molluscs, collected in various parts of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (see vol. iv., p. 197) ; a few of these were pro- cured in New Brunswick. Since that time some additional species have been collected by ot'jer observers. In August, 1867, through the kindness of Messrs. John Luce and G. De Carteret, of the firm of W. Frewen & Co., I was enabled to carry on careful dredging operations at Grande Greve, in Gaspe Bay. In this paper it is proposed — 1st, to give a list of the species 1869.] WHITEAVES — CANADIAN MARINE MOLLUSCA. 49 dredged by myself at Grande Greve, and, 2nd, a catalogue of all the marine mollusca known to inhabit Lower Canada at the present date. Grande Greve is a fishing station on the North-east side of Gaspe Bay, and is sheltered by the narrow strip of land of which Cape Gaspe is the extremity. The rocks of Oriskany sandstone here dip slopingly towards the sea, which deepens very rapidly from the shore, so that but few shells can be collected unless the dredge is used. A fortnight was devoted to a careful examination of this particular spot, and seventy-five species were procured, as follows : — PALLIOBRANCHIATA. RhynclionelJa psittacea Gmelin : — Frequent, alive on stones in from 10 to 20 fathoms. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Anomia ephipjnum Linn. — On stones and shells with the above ; the var. aculeata frequent. Amusmm tenuicostatum Mighels (= Pecten Magellanicus Lam.): — Alive in 1 to 10 fathoms. Pecten Islandlcus Chemnitz : — Living in from 5 to 40 fathoms water. Nucula tenuis Montagu, and var. expansa (= iV. expansa Eeeve) : — Alive in 40 to 50 fathoms mud. The Nucula infiata of Hancock, from Greenland, etc, is apparently only a variety of this species, and is probably the same as N. expansa lieeve. Nucula delphinodonta Migh. : — With the above, but much more abundant. The shell is covered with a ferruginous coat like the British Lucina ferniginosa. Leda permda Miiller : — Six fine living specimens in 50 fathoms mud. Leda minuta Miill. — One, living, with the above. Yoldia myalis Couthuouy : — Rare, with the two preceding ; but not infrequent in the stomachs of flat fish caught oft' Grande Gr^ve. CrencUa glandula Totten : — A few taken living in from 20 to 40 fathoms. CrencUa decussata Mont. (== C. clcercula Moll.) — Abundant, living in mud, in from 20 to 60 fathoms. Quite distinct from the preceding, but larger than the average of British specimens. Vol. I. E No. 1. 50 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March 3Iodiolar!a discors Linn, and var. Uevigata Gray : — Rare, living witli the above. Modiolaria nigra Gray : — One fine living specimen on a stone, in about 20 fathoms. Modioli modiolus Linn. — Fragments of large specimeas in shingle at 20 fathoms. Mytilus edidis Linn. — Common on the beach and in shallow water. Cardiiim Islandicum Linn. — In sandy mud, at 30 to 50 fathoms, and abundantly from fishes' stomachs. Cardium piiundatimi Conrad : — Alive, with the preceding. Serripcs Groenhindicus Chemn. — Large and fine, in mud, at 20 to 50 fathoms. Found in the English Red-Crag deposits. Astarte striata Leach, and var. gJohosa : — In 20 to 60 fathoms mud. Astarte Banhsii Leach : — "With the preceding, but rarer. This species and the foregoing are barely specifically distinct from the A. compressa of English authors. They exactly correspond with the two so-called species from Greenland. Astarte undata Gould (= A. latisidca Hanley) : — Large and fine, in 50 to 60 fathoms mud. Very variable in sculpture. The New England variety, with prominent and distant ribs, which some of the Gaspe examples approach, can hardly be separated from the Astarte Onudii var. undulata of Searles' Wood's Crag Mollusca. Astarte semisulcata Leach : — With the preceding a few speci- mens occurred, which I refer, with doubt, to this species. Cardita horealis Conrad : — Living, at various depths. Axinus Gouldii Philippi : — A few living, at 20 to 60 fathoms. Venus fiuctuosa Gould, sp. — Extremely abundant, living in 20 to 50 fathoms. Ma'Mma s ibulosa Spengler (= Tdlina proxiriia and calcarca, auct.) : — Scarce, in 20 to 50 ftithoms ; also from stomachs of fishes. Macoma Groenlandiai Beck, sp. — Scarce, in shallow water. Probably conspecific with the Sanguinolaria fusca of Say from New England, with the West Coast Macoma inconspicua of Brod. et Sow, and with the European Tdlina Balthica of Linnaeus. Mya arenaria Linn. — Occasional, on the shore. Mya truncata Linn. — One dead but fresh adult, and living fry taken in 10 to 20 fathoms. 1869.] WHITEAVES — CANADIAN MARINE MOLLUSCA. 51 Saxicava (^Panopaa') Norvegica Spengier : — Six dead but fresli specimens, in 50 fathoms mud. Saxicava nigosa Linn, and var. arctica: — Common, burrow- ing into stones in from 10 to 20 fathoms. Anatlna papyracea Say : — One alive, in 50 fathoms mud. Tliracia inyopsis Moller : — A few taken with the above. Lyonsia (^Pundorina) arenosa Moll. — Living in sandy mud, in 30 to 50 fathoms. The shell is covered with particles of sand, as the specific name implies. Pandora (Kennerlya) glacialis heaoh. : — Living with the above. Externally it closely resembles the Pandora ohtusa of Forbes and Hanley, which is the Solen pinna of Montague. According to Dr. P. P. Carpenter, P. glacialis has an internal ossicle, which is wanting in the British shell. GASTEROPODA. Cyllclma alba Brown : — Living in 40 to 60 fathoms. Tonicia marmorea 0. Fabr. — Common on stones, in 10 to 20 fathoms. Leptocliiton alius Linn. — With the above ; frequent. Tectura testudinalis Miill. — In very shallow water. Lcpeta coeca Miill. — On stones, in 20 to 50 fathoms, living. Cemoria Noachina Linn. — Living with the above. Margarita striata Brod. et Sow. (=31. cinerea Gould). Margarita Groenlandica Chemn. and var. undulata Margarita ohscura Couth. Margarita varicosa Migh. : — These four species were taken living, in from 30 to 50 fathoms mud, the last being by ftir the most abundant,' The M. varicosa is the same as the M. elegant issima of Searles' Wood's Crag Mollusca. Lacuna vincta Fabr. — On sea-weeds in shallow water. Littorina littoralis Linn, fide Jeffreys (= L. jx^dliata Say) : — Common on rocks on the shore. Littorina rudis Mont. — With the above. The varieties patula and tenehrosa were common, but I did not meet with the ty} e. L. Groenlandica Chemn. appears to be a variety of this species. Scalaria Groenlandica Perry : — One living specimen on a stone, in 20 fathoms water. Mesalia (?) erosa Couth. — Abundant, Uving in 20 to 50 fathoms mud. Mesalia (?) retictdata Migh. — With the above, but less frequent. 52 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll Aporrhais occidentalis Beck : — Alive, with the two preceding. Mcnestlw alhula Moll. — Three living ; adult specimens were taken on a stone, from about 20 fathoms water. Velutina (^MorvUUa^ Zonata Gould : — Three examples taken on stones in deep water. Velutina liallotoidea Miill. — One taken living, with the above. Natica affinis Gmelin (= N. clausa Brod. et Sow.): — Fine, in about 40 fathoms. Lnnatia Groenlandlca Mtjll. — Very large, living with the above. Lunatia hews Say : — Frequent in sandy parts of Gaspt^ Bay, but rare opposite Grande Greve. Pleurotoma bicarinafa Couth : — Rare, in 30 to 50 fathoms. Bela nohilis Moll. — A few living, at the same depth as the above. Bela exarata Moll. — One living, in about 40 fathoms. Bela scalaris Moll. — In mud, at from 30 to 50 fathoms. I regard these three as good species, distinct from the British B. turrlcula, of which I have never seen typical specimens in Canada. Bela decussata Couth. — Frequent, living in from 30 to 50 fathoms mud. Bela pyramidalis Strom (:=: Fnsus pleurotomarius Couth. F. rufus Gould and B, VahlU Moll.) : — With the preceding, but rare. Nassa trlvlttata Say : — Living, a little above the village of Gaspe Basin, where the water is brackish. Buccinuni undatum Linn. — Several varieties of this species were dredged in deep water. I regard the Buccinum u/ulidatum of MoUer and the B. Lahradorense of Reeve, as varieties of this protean mollusc. Buccinum tenue Gray (= B. scalariforme Moll.): — Alive, in 60 fathoms mud. Buccinofusus Kroyeri Moll. sp. — One living specimen, with the preceding ; it is the Buccinum cretaceum of Reeve and the B. Donovani of Prof. Bell's list. Chrysodomus decemcostatus Say : — One dead immature speci- men was dredged in deep water. Chrysodomus pygmceits Gould : — Not rare, living in about 30 fothoms. Trophon Gunneri Loven : — Living in about 30 fathoms. 18G9.] AVIIITEAVES — CANADIAN MARINE MOLLUSCA, 53 Troplwn clathratus Linn. — One taken with T. Gimneri. Triclwtropis horealis Brod. et Sow. Admete virklula 0. Fabr. — The two last species were fine, and frequent in 30 to 40 fiithoms. CEPHALOPODA. ? Lollgo ilhcebrosa Lesuer ; — Abundant ; is used by the fisher- men largely as a bait for cod. Among other invertebrates dredged here were Metridium marginatum Edw. et Haime, Alci/oniion ruhlforme Ehrenb., EcJdnarachnius parma Linn., OpkioplioKs aculeata Lutk., Oph!ogli/pha rohusta, and 0. Sarsii, with other commoner forms, and some fine sponges. It is thought desirable to place on record a list of the sea shells known to inhabit the River and Gulf of the St. Lawrence, north of New Brunswick, and south of north-eastern Labrador. The species enumerated in the preceding list are included, and only unrecorded localities are given for rare species. My thanks are due to Principal Dawson, to Drs. Stimpson, and P. P. Carpenter, and to Messrs. S. Hanley and J. G. Jeffreys, for their kind critical assistance in the identification of difiicult species. At the same time, having carefully compared the Canadian shells with Moller's types in the British Museum, and in the cabinets of Messrs. Hanley and Jeffreys, this and the preceding list must be regarded as the expression of my own individual judgment ou the several species. LIST OF THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OP EASTERN CANADA. PALHOBRAN'CHIATA. Rhyiiclionella psittacca, GmeL LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Anomia ephippium, Linn. Yoldia myalis, Couthiiouy, and var. aculeata. (is the Leda limatula of Principal Limea subauriculata, Mont. Dawson's list). Amusium tenuicostatum, Migh. Cronella pectinula, Gould ; Pecten Islandicus, Chemn. (Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr). Nucula tenuis Mont. glandula, Totten. and var. expansa. decussata, Mont. Nucula delphinodonta, Migh. Modiolaria discors, Gray, Leda pernula, Miill. and var. loevigata. ■ minuta, Miill. . nigra, Gray. 54 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Modiola modiolus, Linn. plicatula, Lamarck. Mytiliis edulis, Linn. Cardium Islandieum, Linn. pinnulatum, Conr. Serripes Groenlandicus. Chemnitz; Axinus Gouldii, Phil. Astarte borealis? Chemn. (Marsouin, Prof. R. Bell). undata, Gould. semisulcata? Leach. striata, Leach. Bank.«ii, Leach. quadrans, Gould ; (Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr). Cardita borealis, Conr. Gemma Tottenii, Stimp. (^ Venus gemma, Tottcn). Venus fluctuosa, Gould. Mactra polynema, Stimp. (= M. ovalis, Gould — name pre- occupied). Ceronia deaurata, Turton, (= Mesodesma Jauresii, De Joan- nis) ; Little Metis, J. F. W. Ceronia arctata, Conrad ; (This species I believe to be the young of the preceding). Macoma Groenlandica, Beck. sabulosa, Spengl. Tellina (Angulus) tenera. Say ; (collected in Gaspe Bay by Prin- cipal Dawson). Solen ensis, Linn. Machaera costata ? Say. Mya arenaria, Linn. truneata, Linn. Crytoda liqua, Spengl. (Tadoussac, Principal Dawson ; Little Metis, J. F. Whith- eaves). Panopoea Norvegica, Spengl. Saxicava rugosa, and var. arctica. Anatina papyracea. Say. Thracia myopsis, Moll. Lyonsia (Pandorina) arenosa, Moll, (is the Osteodesmahyalinaof Prof. Bell's list, but not of Conrad). Pandora glacialis. Leach. Zirphoea crispata, Linn. GASTEROPODA. Opisthobr Cylichna alba. Brown. Prosohr( Tonicia marmorea, 0. Fabr. Leptochiton albus, Linn. Amicula Emersonii, Couthuouy ; (Gasp6 Bay, Principal Dawson). Lepeta coeca, Moll. Cemoria noachina, Linn. Margarita striata, Brod. et Sow. obscura, Couth. varieosa, Migh. Groenlandica, Chemn. and var. undulata. helicina, 0. Fabr. Adeorbis (MoUeria) costulata, Moll. ; (Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr). Rissoa minuta, Totten ; (Little Metis, J. F. W.) castanea, Moller ; (Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr). Lacuna vincta, Fabr. Littorina littoralis, Linn. :tnchiata. nchiata. Littorina rudis, Montagu; vars. patula and tenebrosa. Scalaria Groenlandica, Perry. Mesalia erosa, Couthuouy, (^ Turritella polaris, Moller). reticulata, Mighels, (= Turritella lactea, Moller). Aporrhais occidentalis. Beck ; (Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr). Menestho albula, Moll. Velutina haliotoidea, Miill. (Morvillia) Zonata, Gould. Lamellaria perspicua, Linn. Natica affinis, Gmelin. Lunatia heros. Say. Groenlandica, Moll. triseriata. Say. Bulbus flavus, Gould. Amauropsis Islandica, Gmelin, (= Natica helicoides, Johnstone). 18G9.] WHITEAVES — CANADIAN MARINE MOLLUSCA. Pleurotoma bicarinata, Couth. Bela nobilis, Moll. scalaris, Moll. exarata, Moll. decussata, Coutli. pyramidalis, Strom. Astyris Holbolli, Beck ; smooth var. (=: Columbella rosacea, Gould) ; Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr. Purpura lapillus, Linn. Nassa trivittata, Say. Buccinum undatum, Linn. (varieties == B. undulatum Moll. andB. Labradorense, Reeve). teriue, Gray. Buccinofusus Kroyeri, Moll. Chrysodomus tornatus, Gould. decemcostatus, Say, (varieties occur with characters intermediate between this and the preceding species). Islandicus ? Chemn. (?= Fusus Spitzbergensis, Reeve) . pygmoeus, Gould. Trophon clathratus, Linn. scalariforme, Gould. Gunneri, Loven. craticulatus, 0. Fabr. (= T. Fabricii, Beck) ; Mingan, J. Richardson, Jr. Trichotropis borealis, Brod. et Sow. Admete viridula, 0. Fabr. CEPHALOPODA. LoHgo illecebrosa? Lcsuer. The following species have been found in Labrador, but have not yet been taken living in the area in question: — Philine lineolata. Couth, Pilidium rubellum, Fabr. Scissurella crispata, Flem. Turitella acicula, Stimps. Bella violacea, Migh. cancellata, Migh. Buccinum Groenlandicum, ILancock. Ommastrephes todarus ? Terebratella Labradorensis, Sow. Yoldia sapotilla, Gould. Leda buccata, Moll. Mactra solidissima, Chemn. Thracia Conradi, Couth. Clione limacina, Phipps. Limacina helicina, Phipps. Bulla pertenius, Migh. occulta, Migh. All of these, with the exception of the first species, arc given on the authority of Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr. (tliis Journal, vol. viii., page 401. Throughout Dr. Packard's article, wherever the depth of water is given as "feet," read "fathoms"). Ostrcea Vlrginiana f Lam., Vouts mercenaria Say, Crepl- dala fornicata, C. plana, and Nassa ohsoleta live in the Btiy of Chaleur, but barely within the limits we have prescribed. Machcera squama Blainv., Fasciolaria ligata Mighels, and Fusus ventricosus Gray, occur both north and south of Lower Canada, but they have not as yet been taken in its waters. Lastly, a few shells are found in the post pliocene beds of Lower Canada, which, as yet, have not been detected as members of its recent fauna. These are : — Terebratella Spitzbergensis ? Dav. Leda truncata, Brown. Cardium Dawsoni, Stimp. Astarte Laurentiana, Lyell. 56 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Macoma inflata, Stimp. Buccinum Groenlandicum, Hanc. Cylichna nucleola, Reeve. cyaneum, Brug. Buccinum glaciale, Linn. Tottenii, Stimp. The three last named ppecies of Buccinum are quoted ou the authority of Dr. Stimpson. The Terebratella has been referred to the T. Lahradorensis of Sowerby. Having seen recent speci- mens of this shell from Halifax, N. S., and fossil examples from Riviere-du-Lonp, it seems to me to come nearer to Davidson's Terehratella Spitzhergensis. At depths as great as fifty fiithoms and upwards in Gaspe Bay, the mud or sand brought up by the dredge, even in July and August, is icy cold. It is not improbable that in this bay one of the branches of the cold northerly arctic current may flow. An experiment made by Dr. Fortin of trying to naturalize oysters in Gaspe Bay seems to have failed. Oysters are very sensitive to cold, and not only does extreme cold exist at the bottom in deep water all the year round, but the surface is frozen over along the shore during the winter. The marine mollusca of the River and Gulf of the St. Lawrence are remarkable, first, for the extreme antiquity of many of the species, and secondly, for their wide geogTaphical range. The majority of them belong to an arctic or sub-arctic fauna, which is to a large extent circumpolar. In time, some date^back to a period as old as that in which the European coralline crag was deposited, and during the formation of the European tertiaries and post-pliocene beds, many species lived in the seas of Great Britain, etc., which are now extinct there but which still live on the western side of the Atlantic. There may be perhaps, in addition to this, a small local assemblage consisting of species apparently of a more recent date of creation and confined to a comparatively limited area. Nearly all of the Greenland shells will probably be yet detected in the River and Gulf of the St. Lawrence. "When we possess more definite information as to the geographical distribution of the living marine invertebrates of the Dominion, we shall be better able to understand the con- ditions under which the Canadian post-pliocene beds were deposited. And further, a careful comparison is still required between the recent invertebrates of the northern seas, and the fossils of the tertiary and post tertiary beds of Europe and North America. Not only would the results of such investigations add to our knowledge of physical geology, and help to form a key 1869.] EDWARDS — CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES. 57 towards the solution of the problem of the rationale of the geographical distribution of plants and animals, but it might also throw some light on that vexed question the origin of species. These arctic or sub-arctic molluscs are not only in many cases of high antiquity, but from their wide spread distribution we get an opportunity of studying the modifications of species caused by altered physical conditions. ON CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES. GUNPOWDER — GUN-COTTON — NITRO-GLYCERINE — DYNAMITE. By J. B. Edwards, Ph. D., F. C S. The rapid advance of gun-cotton and its congeners as formidable rivals to gunpowder, is a remarkable example of the industrial intelligence and enterprise of modern Europe. Gunpowder has long occupied a remarkable position as a projectile. The mechan- ical genius of the most advanced nationality, has been invoked for improvements in armaments and defences ; but the chemical condition of this explosive projectile has remained the same during the past century. It would be rash to say that the days of gun- powder are over, as our past experience has shown that new inventions bring new appliances into action, and that in the spread of civilization over the globe, all are required. Hence it is probable that as much gunpowder will be consumed hereafter, as before the invention of gun-cotton, but the latter wi'l, undoubt- edly, be in large demand for mining industries, as well as for some forms of ordinance. On the comparative mechanical value of gun-cotton and gunpowder, Mr. Scott Russell has brought some valuable data before the members of the Royal Institution, and thus compares them : " Gun cotton, as prepared by the Austrian process, is uniform in quality and permanent in action ; it possesses the greatest cleanliness in use, not fouling the gun as gunpowder does, and hence possesses great advantages for use with breech-loading arms." Exploding in the open air it acts differently from gunpowder ; if the latter is exploded in one pan of a pair of scales, the arm of the balance is violently depressed ; an equal weight of gun cotton, on the contrary, can be ignited without moving the pan. In the 58 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Maicll same manner a bag of gunpowder will blow open the gate of a town, which would not be injured by the explosion of an equal weight of loose or unpacked gnn cotton. Enclosed in a case or gun, the effect of gun cotton is three times greater than that of powder, and for blasting purposes it is twelve times greater. When the cotton is converted into gun cotton in the state of twist or yarn, and afterwards plaited, it may be made into cartridges of almost any proportion of projectile force ; and this force is increased per weight of cotton. The recoil is one- third greater in the case of gunpowder, than that caused by gun cotton. Gun cotton is found not to heat the gun to the same extent as as gunpowder ; the former can be repeatedly wetted and dried again without injury, which is a great advantage over gunpowder. In confined places, such as mines and casements, the absence of sulphurous smoke, enables workmen and soldiers to continue firing for any length of time without inconvenience. The relative power and proportions of gunpowder and gun cotton, may be inferred from the following tables, compiled by Mr. Scott Russell : — GUNPOWDER. GUN COTTON. 00 lbs. occupy 1.8 C. ft. 100 lbs. occupy . 4 C. ft. 55 lbs. " •• . 1.0 C. ft. 25 lbs. " . 1 G. ft. PRODUCTS. 100 lbs. yields I 100 lbs. yields 68 lbs solid, 32 lbs. gases. I 25 lbs. steam, 75 lbs. gas. Professor Abel, the able chemist at Woolwich laboratory, points out two distinct actions of nitric acid upon cotton. If the nitric acid be permitted to act at a high temperature, and in an ener- getic manner, the carbon and hydrogen of the cotton may be com- pletely oxydized. When, however, the temperature is controlled, and the action moderated, the hydrogen is removed in gradations, peroxide of nitrogen being substituted for it, and various compounds formed in definite proportion. Thus, when the atoms of hydrogen are replaced by two of nitric oxide Xyloidine is pro- duced C. 24H. ISJQoo 2 N.O. 4}^' ~" When three atoms of hydrogen are replaced, pyroxiliue, or collo- dion cotton is produced C. 24 H. 17 I ^ <,. 3 N.O. 4J^-^- 18G9.] EDWARDS — CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES. 59 By the precautions adopted in the Austrian army, a definite compound has been produced for martial purposes. C. 25 H. 15 5N.0. 4^^-20 The cotton loosely spun with yarn, is boiled in a weak solution of alkali, in order to remove more easily oxidized materials which would consume a portion of the nitric acid. After this washing the yarn is dried in a centrifugal drying machine, and immersed in a solution of 1 part by weight nitric acid, Spgr. 1.5, and 3 parts sulphuric acid, 1.845. To secure uniformity of result, it is allowed to remain in this acid for forty-eight hours ; great care being taken that the temperature does not rise during the operation. When loosely arranged the Austrian cotton inflames at a tempera- ture of 300*^, it burns without smoke, and leaves no ashes. When twisted into yarn its rapidity of combustion is diminished, and by varying the degree and tightness of the twist, various rates of burning may be obtained, from the rifle cartridge to the mining fuse. Economically, these results all tell in favor of the gun cotton over gunpowder, in every modification of its grain ; and in many respects the actual manufacture of gun cotton is the safer of the two. In competition with these substances are explosive derivatives of the same type from starch and sugar ; but these have not at present shown any commercial capabilities. A formidable oppo- nent to gun cotton has, however, appeared in the product of gly- cerine, the waste product from soap manufacture, which is converted by nitric acid into nitro-glycerine or glonoine. This substance was discovered in 1847 by Sobrero, but its manufacture on a commercial scale is due to the persevering enterprise of M. Nobel, a Swedish chemist, who has established six factories for its manufacture. The Nitro-glycerine Company in Stockholm, sold, in 18G5, 32,258 feet, in 1866, 48,785 feet, in 1867, 76,575 feet, and in 1868, 150,009 feet, which shows the rapid increase in the demand for this explosive, this quantity being principally consumed in Sweden for mining purposes. Nitro-glycerine is an oily fluid, having a specific gravity of 1.6. It is insoluble in water, but soluble both in wine and wood alco- hol, and in ether. It freezes at 46"^ F. and explodes at 350° F. Flame will not always ignite it, and when struck on an anvil only the portion actually struck explodes. It is exploded by agitation, and by friction, which is a source of danger in its handling, and 60 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March has been the probable cause of some of the serious and unexpected accidents to which its sudden explosion has given rise. Great caution is therefore necessary in its manufacture, as during the action of the nitric acid on the glycerine, the temperature rapidly rises, and has to be controlled by the use of a freezing mixture, otherwise the compound formed would explode ; and, on the other hand, if frozen solid, the same danger exists from the friction of its particles. Although, therefore, a highly dangerous process, it may, by care and precaution, be produced as we have seen in very large quantities. Fearful destruction of life has, however, arisen from ignorance and recklessness in its conveyance from place to place. In 1865, a small rudely formed box was found to be creating a suffocating smell in the baggage room of the Wyoming Hotel in New York, and which not being claimed was thrown into the street when it immediately exploded with great violence filling the air with nitrous fumes, and doing much damage. One hundred pounds weight exploded at Sydney, and seventy cases exploded at Aspiuwall, Panama, in the same year, on board the ' European,' which was nearly destroyed, a large ship near her greatly injured, the freight house blown down and 400 feet of the quay obliterated, upwards of seventy persons were killed and wounded and not a single pane of glass was left in the city. Similar casualties have followed in quick succession. Two boxes of oil were transmitted as ordinary merchandise through the most important and populous localities in Europe and finally landed iu San Francisco, where it exploded, causing a fearful loss of life and the destruction of $200,000 worth of property. Such extraor- dinary and criminal recklessness has given rise to prohibitory legislation and probably induced an unnecessary panic in reference to the real dangers of transhipment and conveyance of the article. In the history of gunpowder and gun-cotton, we have been occa- sionally startled by fearful accidents with terrific loss of life, which has awakened us to the necessity of constant vigilance and the utmost precaution in handling and storing large quantities of such potential commodities. Nitro-glycerine has been prohibited in Belgium, and in Sweden it has been placed under restrictions of a similar class to those imposed on gunpowder. Some railway companies refuse to carry it, which has induced these requiring it to smuggle it through as ordinary merchandise, a most unjusti- fiable proceeding. The wisest policy is doubtless to carry it 1869.] EDWARDS— CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES. 61 under special precautions, and thus a car load has been recently sent through from New York to the new Pacific railroad without being unladen, in perfect safety. Much scientific attention has been bestowed on the important subject of rendering these substances non-explosive during their storage and transhipment. Gunpowder was to be treated with sand and thus rendered non- explosive and when required for use the sand to be sifted out. This simple and ingenious idea was however found in practice less practicable than could be wished. The sand cut the grain of the powder, and caused loss by dust, while to an inconvenient extent it remained with the powder after sifting. Gun-cotton can be kept wet until required for use and, when manufactured in yarn or cartridges, is much safer than powder. Prof. Abel has suggested some important modifications in the process for manufacturing mining cotton, which render it com- paratively safe and in a very compact form. Nitro-glyeerine has received similar assistance from the hands of M. Nobel, which promises to give a new stimulus to its manu- facture and which may enable it to outstrip all competitors for blasting purposes. His first idea was to dissolve it in two or three volumes of Naptha, or methylated spirit. This renders it perfectly safe for transport, but adds of course to the cost the additional freight of extra bulk, and the value of the spirit. When the compound is dropped into water the nitro-glycerine falls to the bottom and may be collected or used in that state. A still more valuable suggestion, however, is to mix it with 25 per cent, of porous silica, and use it in this pasty condition. This is a form said to possess special advantage for blasting purposes over either the solid or liquid agents ; it loses none of its power by dilution to this extent and is then called Dynamite. Experiment have been made at Glasgow and Mertsham which leave no doubt of its safety. A box containing 8 lbs. of Dyna- mite (equal to 80 lbs. gunpowder) was placed over a fire where it slowly burned away. Another box containing the same quantity was hurled from a height of sixty feet on to the rock below and no explosion took place. At Stockholm, a 200 lbs. weight was dropped from a height of twenty feet on to a box containing Dyna, mite, which was completely smashed but without any explosion. It may of course be much more easily packed that nitro-gly- G2 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March ccrine and is not liable to leakage which is a serious difficulty with all liquids of an oily nature. Its power is fully equal to the same bulk of nitro-glycerine and it has also several advantages. Thus it does not evaporate and give off fumes, which is a complaint made by workmen against nitro-glycerine, because in a close tunnel it gives rise to severe headaches. The saving of time and labour by its use is said to be very great. The Dynamite is put up in cartridges, so that the workman has simply to put them into his bore-hole and fire. Mr. Nobel states, as the result of his experience, that the use of Dynamite or nitro-gly- cerine, reduces the general cost of blasting by at least one third. It is being largely used in Sweden, in Wales, at the Phoenix mine on Lake Superior, also in the construction of the Pacific Railway and the demand now considerably exceeds the ability of existing Victories to supply it. ON THE GREAT SNOW FALLS OF 18G9. Bv C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L. The more than usual amount of snow which fell during the winter 1868-9, renders it worthy of record for comparison with past and future observations. The first snow of the winter (1868-9) fell on the 17th day of October, and though inappreciable in quantity, ushered in a season of very heavy snow falls. The total amount which fell during the month of October was 4.92 inches During the month of November 17.28 " During the month of December 27.96 " Duringthemonthof January, 1869 28.07 " During the month of February 73.76 " Up to the 15th March 11.67 " Total 163.66 " The mean average depth of the snow fiiU for the past twenty years was 79.50 inches per annum. The greatest depth which fell in one month during the above period fell in January, 1861, and was 31.80 inches. 1869.] SMALLWOOD — THE SNOW FALLS OF 1869. 63 The total depth which fell in 1861 (a year of great suow fall) was 99.58 inches. Last year (1868) 105.27 inches of snow fell; this is above the yearly average, but is owing in a great measure to the unusual large amount which fell in November and December. The first heavy fall commenced at 7 a. m. on the 3rd of February and ceased at 4 p. m. on the 4th day, 25.44 inches having fallen. The barometer fell from 29.751 inches to 28.841 (a range of 0.910 inches). The mean temperature of the 3rd day was 17 degrees, and of the 4th day 21 degrees ; wind was from the N. E. by E. ; greatest mean velocity 18.42 miles per hour. The second heavy fall commenced at 3.15 p. m, on the 14th day, and ceased at 2.15 p.m. of the 15th; there fell 14.90 inches. The barometer stood at the commencement at 30.001 inches and fell to 29.175 (a range of 0.826 inches) ; the wind was from the N. E. by E. ; greatest mean velocity 19.11 miles per hour. The mean temperature of the 15th day was 19 degrees. A third fall, which was remarkable for heavy drifts and somewhat severe cold, commenced at 4 a. m. on the 10th of March and ended at 11 p. m., during which time there fell 8.82. inches. The barometer attained the lowest reading at 10 p. m., and indicated 29.119 inches; wind was from the N. E. by E., and was succeeded by a heavy gale from the West. The mean tem- perature of the day was 12.1 degrees ; the thermometer at 7 a. m. stood at 16°. 1 and fell to 8°.0 at 2 p. m., and at 9 p. m. it rose to 12°.2. The heaviest fall of suow on record to which we have had access, occured on the 17th and 18th of January, 1827, when from 60 to 70 inches of snow fell. Drifts of from 12 to 15 feet high were common in many places. February has not generally been characterized by very heavy snow falls, being for the most part dry and cold. The heavy fall of November last fjir exceeds the usual average for that month, which is about 6 inches. December, 1830. 1831 and 1834 showed a fall of 26.50 inches, 27.45 inches, and 27.70 inches respectively ; large amounts fell in February, 1831, viz., 23.30 inches; in 1832, 25.85 inches; and in 1835, 21.80 inches, but these are excep- tions; and March, 1832, shows an amount of 21,35 for that month. The amount of snow which fell in the month of De- cember corresponds very clo e'y to the above amounts. 64 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March We may state for the purpose of illustrating our climatology, that from the year 1824 up to i8G8, a period of 44 years, the ice left the River St. Lawrence in front of this city — varying from the earliest period, 16th March (1825), to the latest, April 28 (1855), showing a variation of 43 days during this period of 44 yeai's, but these early periods are not confined to late dates, but occured in March 1825, 1828, 1834 and 1842 ; the intervening years vary from 3rd to the 28th of April inclusive. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. MONTHLY MEETINGS. {From December 1st, 1868, to February 2Sth, 1869.) Third monthly meeting, December 28th, 1868; Mr. E. Billings in the chair. The following donations were announced. TO THE MUSEUM. Twenty-eight species of coleoptera from the Mackenzie River ; from G. Barnston. A named series of Canadian beetles, consisting of 733 specimens of 475 species; from E. Billings. Fifty-four species of Canadian beetles ; from A. S. Ritchie. To THE Library. The 20th Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New-York ; from Prof. J. Hall. Cephalopodes Silurieus de la Bohenie. Groupement des Ortho- ceres, par Joachim Barrande ; from the Author. Annuaire de Ville Marie, etc., from L. A. H. Latour. NEW MEMBERS. Mr. C. C. Stewart B. A. was elected a member of the Society. PROCEEDINGS. Mr. Whiteaves made a communication on a collection of exotic birds recently added to the Collection. Ninety-two specimens have been acquired by purchase during the past summer. Of these sixty-three examples were exhibited, and the points of interest in each species were briefly pointed out. Two of the species belong to the order Raptores, and the rest to the various subdivi- sions of the laro;e order Insessores. 1869.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 65 Fourth monthly meeting, January 25tli, 1869, the President in the chair. DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM. A collection of Devonian plants (35 specimens of 22 species) from the Fern ledges, near St. Jolm, New Brunswick : from the Natural History Society of St, John. TO THE LIBRARY. Catalogue of N. American Orthoptera described previous to 1867, by Samuel H. Scudder : from the Smithsonian Institute, Washington. Twenty eight volumes of the Zoological catalogues of the British Museum : from the Trustees. Messrs Walter McOwatt and Walter Cross Cowan were elected ordinary members. Mr. F. Mackenzie read a paper •' on the prevention of cruelty to animals." A discussion ensued in which Principal Dawson, Rev., Dr. De Sola, Dr. Bernard, R. Moat, D. Mackay, Jas. Ferrier Jr. and Mr. Mackenzie took part. Dr. P. P. Carpenter then made a communication " on some of the features of the Montreal mortality returns for 1868." Some remarks were made on this subject by Dr. Girdwood, CI. Stephens, and Principal Dawson. Fifth monthly meeting, held February 22nd, 1869, the Presi- dent in the chair. DONATION TO THE MUSEUM. Specimen of the silicious sponge {Euplectella aspergiUum) popularly known as Venus' flower basket, from the Philippine Islands: presented by Jas. Ferrier, jr Specimen of the Missouri pouched Rat, Geortiys bursarins : from Mr. W. Hunter. Plaster models of five Indian pipes from the supposed site of the ancient Indian village of Hochelaga ; from Principal Dawson. TO THE LIBRARY. Acadian Geology. Second edition. From Principal Dawson. Five volumes and 6 numbers of the London Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science; from Dr. J. Baker Edwards, Messrs Bryce Scott, H. R. Gray, and E. Hartley were elected members of the Society. YOL. I, F Jfo, 1. 66 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Dr. John Bell read a paper entitled " Notes on a cruise in the Gulf of St. Lawrence." Mr. A. T. Drummond read an essay "On the introduced plants of Ontario and Quebec. SOMERVILLE LECTURES. Four lectures of this series have at present been delivered, as follows : 1. January 21st, 1869. On Paloeozoic land Animals; by the President. 2. January 28th, 1869. On the Chemistry of the Soap manu- facture ; by Dr. John Baker Edwards F. C. S. 3. February 11th, 1369. On the Zoology of the Bible; by Rev. A. De Sola L. L. D. 4. February 25th, 1869; On Primoeval Chemistry; by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt F. R. S. CONVERSAZIONE. The 7th Annual Conversazione was held at the Rooms on Thursday evening, February 18th, and was well attended. Music was given by Herr Mayerhofer and pupils, by the Germania glee club, and by Mr. Brandt. Philosophical instruments were contri- buted by the authorities of McGill College, and microscopes, with objects, by members of the Microscopic club. 3Ir. C. Baillie illuminated the Museum with the electric light, and Dr. J. Baker Edwards exhibited Plateau's soap bubbles. Mr. Hoss illustrated the operation of his new automatic fire alarm signal box, and contributed a small aquarium containing living sea anemones from the Clyde. Dr. Bell exhibited a series of the Plants of Newfoundland, Mr. J. P. Clark photographs and prints, and other gentlemen contributed interesting Zoological specimens. During the evening the following address was delivered by the President, Principal Dawson. Ladies and Gentle.men : — It is my pleasing duty to bid you welcome to the Seventh Annual Conversazione of this Society — a Society which has not ceased, since its incorporation in 1832, to labour for the promotion in this city of a taste for natural science and allied subjects ; and this, with marked success. In addition to its Lectures and meetings, I may mention as a permanent monu- ment of its utility, the issue of nine volumes of its Proceedings, containing more than 4,000 pages of matter of the highest scieuti- 1869.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 67 fic value, and of the utmost importance to the knowledge of nature as it exists in this country, and to the development of our resour- ces. No other institution in Canada can pretend to have made any contribution to the Natural History of this continent approach- ing this in value and extent. I may also mention its Museum, which has within the last few years made great progress, under the care of Mr. Whiteaves, and by the patient labour of our cabi- net-keeper, Mr. Hunter. When I look through this museum to- day, and observe its admirable arrangement and the great amount of scientific material of real value which it contains, I can scarcely believe that it has grown from the confused and paltry collection which was huddled together in our former rooms in Little St. James street. Nor has its growth ceased. The additions made within the last six months amount to 200 species of vertebrate animals, a large number of invertebrates, and about 200 fossils, besides many other objects. Taking together, the collections of this Society, of the Geological Survey and of the McGill Univer- sity, Montreal now stands far in advance of any other city of this Dominion in its museums of Natural Science; and thus affords greater facilities than any other to the student of Canadian Natu- ral History and Geology. This is no mean advantage, and is espe- cially appropriate to a commercial and manufacturing metropolis ; and it will be far more strongly felt when we shall have in connec- tion with the University, or with any other agency that may be established, Schools of Science for the training of our young men in the practical application of Science to the Arts. In this respect this Society has all along been in advance of the age ; because here, as elsewhere, the accumulation of museums must always precede the establishment in any large and eflFectual way of the higher grade of scientific schools. A knowledge of this fact, has I confess stimulated my own efforts in behalf of this museum and that of the university, since I hoped that here, as in the old world, the CDllection of objects would afibrd a safe basis for the erection of scientific education. There are some branches of knowledo-e and culture, and these very valuable in themselves and the trainino- they afford, which require nothing but teachers and books for their successful prosecution. But training in science, to attain to any useful results, must have large preparatory appliances in collec- tions and apparatus. This along with the apathy which naturally exists as to anything of which the public has had no previous experience, is no doubt, a cause of the lamentable fact that Canada 68 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March has not yet attained to the estabhshmeut of ODe scientific school, while in the mother country, in the various states of the continent of Europe, and also in the United States of America, such schools largely supported and admirably appointed exist in great numbers, and are productive of immense results in the promotion of the scientific arts and manufactures. In the Christmas vacation I enjoyed the pleasure of visiting some of these institutions in the United States, in which the means of old University foundations are made available, along with modern donations and grants, for the cultivation of practical science. Such institutions are furnished with laboratories, museums, scientific libraries and apparatus ; and their courses of study embrance such subjects as Mining, Metallur- gy, Agriculture, Botany, Zoology. Geology, Mineralogy, Engineer- ing, Architecture, Drawing, Military Science and Tactics, Practi- cal Mechanics, Astronomy ; all eminently practical, and arranged so as to suit the wants of young men entering on a variety of useful trades and professions. Although these institutions are numerous and largely attended, they have not yet reached the limits of the demand for their work, and large grants in their aid have recently been made by Congress, while State Legislature and the munifi- cence of private individuals are daily adding to their number and efficiency. It should be a fact that requires but to be mentioned to excite earnest inquiry and effort, that while all the older univer- sities in the United States have scientific schools, and while mul- titudes of similiar schools are supported by the several States and the general government, we have in this Dominion four States. certainly equal in resources to any of those in the American Union, without a scientific school. In the mother country the subject is attracting great attention. I have just read a report presented to the House of Commons last year by a select Commit- tee on Scientific Instruction, which after hearing the evidence of a number of leading Professors, Fcachei's and Educationists, strong- ly recommends to Parliament to proceed at once to organize the technical education of the country, and to add to the existing means as far as possible ; and further, to recognize natural science as an indi-spensable element in such education. This report will, no doubt, be acted on soon, probably before anything can be done in this country, and we shall have the satisfaction of being another step behind the mother country in this most important matter. It may be asked what connection has all this with this Society, and with the present occasion. One such connection is, that this 1869.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 69 Society would derive aid from every graduate of any Scientific school established here; and on the other hand, it can never attain for its collections their full utility, until there should be such schools. Another is, that while as President of this Society I have its immediate interests in view, I have also at heart the advan- tage of the young men growing up among us, and whom I should wish to see rising to something higher than the position of subor- dinates to men trained in other countries ; and with this feeling, I propose, on every fitting occasion, and I regard this as one, to insist as strongly as I can on the necessity of schools of practical science to the welfare and progress of this country. VISIT OF HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR GENERAL. At the Court House, on the morning of the second of February, the following address to His Excellency was presented and read by the President, Principal Dawson. The President was accom- panied by Sir W. E. Logan, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, Dr. Smallwood, Dr. J. Baker Edwards and other ofiicers and members of the Society. To His Excellency the Right Honourable Sir John Young, Bart., G.C.B., G.C.M.G., &c., &c.. Governor General of the Dominion of Canada, &c., &c. May it please your Excellency : We, the President, Vice Presidents, and Members of the Natural History Society of Montreal, beg leave to approach Your Excellency with our most respectful salutations and most cordial welcome qn this your first visit to Montreal, and to tender our hearty congratulations on your assumption of the government of this Dominion. The Institution which we have the honour of representing is one of the oldest in Montreal, and has ever had for its chief object the advancement of the study of Natural Science in this city and throughout Canada. To this end it has striven amid much difiiculty, but with some success, to establish a museum of Natural History and Archaeology, and a library of scientific works, to which we respectfully invite the inspection of Your Excellency. It also, by its papers periodically read, its lectures, and its organ the Canadian Naturalist, and such other means as it may command, seeks to promote original investigation and 70 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Mavcll to foster a taste for the study of natnre so far as it can make its influence extend. Believing that the objects of our Society, and especially that which tends to diffuse a knowledge of the products of this country, will command the sympathy of Your Excellency, as they did that of Your Excellency's predecessors, who took a warm interest in its operations and success, we venture now to solicit the honour of being allowed to name Your Excellency as Patron of the Natural History Society of Montreal. We beg, in conclusion, to express our hope that the residence of Your Excellency in this country may prove as agreeable to yours. If and Lady Young, as we are assured it will be beneficial to all its best interests. We have the honour to be, Your Excellency's very obedient Servants: (Signed) J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. A. De Sola, LL.D. E. Billings, F.G.S. W. E. Logan, LL.D., F.R.S. T. Sterry Hunt, L.LD., F.R.S. C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S. J. Baker Edwards, F.C.S. (And other Members.) To which His Excellency delivered the following i-eply. To the President, Vice Presidents, and Members of the Natural History Society of Montreal. Mr. President and Members : — In the study of Natural Science, which is the object of your Institution to encourage, I recognize one of the most agreeable exercises for the intellectual faculties, as well as a rich mine for exploration in the interests of the practical arts and of the material comfort and advancement of the com- munity. I hope 10 have, either now or at some future early occasion, the pleasure an I advantage of visiting the Museum which you worthily laboured to establish. I tender you many thanks for the complimentary terms of your welcome, as well as for the kind wishes you express, that Lady Young's and my residence in Canada may prove useful to the country and agreeable to ourselves. (Signed,) John Young. 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 71 His Excellency also stated verbally that he should be happy to become Patron of the Society. On the afternoon of February 3rd, His Excellency visited the Society's Museum. He was accompanied by His Worship the Mayor, Col. McNeil, A.D.C., Lieut. Col. Duchesnay, P.A.D.C , Mr. Turville, Lieut. Gov. Howland, Hon. A. Campbell, Hon. John Eose and C. E. Lee, Esq. At the Society's rooms His Excellency was received by the President, Principal Dawson, Rev. Dr. De Sola, Hon. Jas. Ferrier, Dr. Smallwood, Dr. J. B. Edwards, and others. He examined with care the collection of North American and exotic mammalia and birds, the more inter- esting features of which were explained by Principal Dawson, and Mr. Whiteaves. The visit lasted about an hour, during which the Governor General expressed his gratification at the interest taken in the study of Natural History in Montreal, and the pleasure which his visit had afforded him. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. The Wakefield Cave. — Though Sir Duncan Gibb has enumerated no less than thirty Canadian caverns, they are for the most part insignificant and scarcely deserving of the name. The Wakefield Cave, recently described by Dr. Grant, F. G. S., in a paper read before the Natural History Society of Ottawa is more important. It is thus described by Dr. Grant : — '' North from Ottawa, in an almost direct line, via, the Portland Road distant eighteen miles, on the fiirm of Mr. Pellessier, is the " Wakefield Cave.''' It is situated on the side of oue of the Lau- rentian Mountains, and faces the North. The mouth of the cave is fully eighteen feet in diameter, of an oval shape, beautifully arched and having overhanging it pine and cedar trees of conside- rable size. The entire height of the mountain is about 300 feet, and the entrance to the cave is about 100 feet from the summit. At the base of the mountain is a small lake, which discharges into the Gatineau River through a mountain gorge of exquisite beauty. Looking inwards from the mouth of the cave it is funnel shaped, directed obliquely forwards and downwards, a distance of seventy-four feet, at which point it is contracted to a height of five feet and width of fifteen feet. This contraction forms the 72 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March entrance to the first " Grand Chamhtr," eighty feet in length, twenty-one feet across and nine feet in height thoughout. At the posterior part of this chamber, in an oblique direction to the left, is an opening five feet in height, forming the entrance to the third chamber, which is about eighteen feet in diameter and five feet high. The floor, however, is covered with calcareous breccia to a depth of thi'ee feet or more. Looking outwards, two openings are to be seen to the left of the first chamber, one anterior, broad and elevated, and one posterior, contracted and shallow, passing obliquely upwards and backwards, a distance of fully twenty-five feet. This chamber is entirely encrusted with carbonate of lime of a cheesy consistence, and in the centre, a perfectly white column reaches from the floor to the ceiling, about six inches in diameter, formed by the union of a stalactite and stalagmite. The antero-lateral chamber passes in an oblique direction upwards, a distance of thirty feet, at which point the ceiling is fully fifty feet high, of a gothic shape, and beautifully ornanie'ited with stalac- tites and fringe like encrustations of carbonate of lime. About sixty feet from the mouth of the cave to the right, is a narrow passage, rough, uneven, and forming the entrance to a chamber the floor of which ascends obliquely upwards a distance of thirty feet, the height of this point being about fifty feet. On the way up a beautiful arch is to be seen, above and beneath which this chamber communicates with the one entered by the antero-lateral opening from the " Grand Chamher," and the light reflected from a lamp through the opening below this arch illuminates the entire ceiling of the adjoining chamber and presents a rich appearance as seen through the opening above the arch. To the right of the oblique floor of the antero-lateral cavity, is an opening horse-shoe shaped, scalloped, about five feet in diameter, and con- siderably obscured by the over-hanging rock. From the body of the cave, the passage leading from this opeoing takes a direction at an angle of about 25° t« the right. Its entii-e length is about 270 feet, height between four and five feet, and width the same. The floor is rough and covered with small fragments of rock of vj'rious sizes and from the ceiling hang many small stalactites. At the inner terminus of this passage is an opening more or less circ ular, about twenty feet in diameter, and the rock over it is concave, and fully fifteen feet in height. Stones thrown into this well or cavity give rise to a loud rumbling noise. Its depth is thirty. seven feet, and the bottom measured nine feet by thirty 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 73 feet, on either side of which are two openings, one five feet by twelve feet, twenty-two feet in depth, the othor two feet by three feet, and forty-five feet in depth. The floors of these lower cavi- ties are covered with fine sand, and on every side are to be seen beautiful stalactites. On the right and left of the main passages of this well are to be observed several smaller passages, which from their narrowness, are entered with difficulty. The entire cavern presents a water-worn appearance, more or less smooth on the sur- face, of a light gray color, and considerably excavated at intervals. Here and there, in each chamber, particularly from the ceilings, are to be seen rough projecting portions of rock of various shapes and composed chiefly of quartzite, pyroxeue, serpentine, iron pyrites, and various mineral ingredients peculiar to the Crystalline Laurentian limestone formations. In many parts of the cave the walls, particularly those to the right of each chamber entered^ were covered with moderately uniform sheets of carbonate of lime- The cavern is entered by descending on talus or broken rock ; this is succeeded by a floor, partly flat, smooth and presenting also a water-worn appearance. Generally speaking, the floor is uneven and strewed with fragments of rock of various sizes, more or less mixed up with broken stalactites and shelved portions of carbonate of lime. The entire cave, excepting the entrance, is perfectly devoid of light ; the atmosphere moist, but exceedingly pure, even to the extent of our explorations, and a uniform temperature of about 45° Fahrenheit. The only organic remains so far discov- ered were those of the Vulpes Vulgaris or common fox, Ca.stor Fiber (Lin) or Beaver, Lutra Vulgaris (Lin) or Otter, and a few drift shells. From the purity of atmosphere in the entire cave, the opinion formed from that fact is, that any accumulating carbonic acid is absorbed by water in some part of the unexplored portion of the cave, and it is not unlikely that parts already visited are only an entrance to vast labyrinths yet to be explored." It is to be hoped that Dr. Grant will pursue the exploration of this cave ; more especially with the view of ascertaining '.vherher any remains of pre-historic man, or of post pliocene animals occur in the accumulation on its floors. j. w. D. Geological Time.— Mr. Croll, of the Geological Survey of Scotland, has published a series of suggestive articles in the Philosophical Magazine on the "Date of the Glacial and the Upper Miocene Period." He presents a number of very 74 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March interesting calculations, not only bearing on these questions, but also on the entire age of the earth, and on the relative duration of geological periods. Of course in such inquiries much is conjectural, and the most precise calculations may be vitiated by uncertainties as to the data. Still anything having even the aspect of arithmetical results is preferable to the vague assump- tion of indefinite periods, and may at length lead to reliable conclusions. In the meantime we give the following as an illustration of the manner in which Mr. Croll deals with the subject : — "But is it the case that geology really requires such enormous periods as is generally supposed ? At present, geological esti- mates of time are little else than mere conjectures. Greological science has hitherto afforded no trustworthy means of estimating the positive length of geological epochs. Geological phenomena tell us most emphatically that these periods must be long ; but how long, these phenomena have, as yet, failed to inform us. Geological phenomena represent time to the mind under a most striking and imposing form. They present to the eye, as it were, a sensuous representation of time ; the mind thus becomes deeply impressed with a sense of immense duration ; and when one under these feelings is called upon to put down in figures what he believes will represent that duration, he is very apt to be de- ceived. If, for example, a million of years as represented by geological phenomena and a million of years as represented by figures were placed before our eyes, we should certainly feel startled. We should probably feel that a unit with six ciphers after it was really something far more formidable than we had hitherto supposed it to be. Could we stand upon the edge of a gorge a mile and a half in depth that has been cut out of the solid rock by a tiny stream, scarcely visible at the bottom of this fearful abyss, and were we informed that this little streamlet was able to wear off annually only to of an inch from its rocky bed, what would our conceptions be of the prodigious length of time that this stream must have taken to excavate the gorge ? We should certainly feel startled when, on making the necessary cal- culations, we found that the stream had performed this enor- mous amount of work in something les,^ than a million of years. If we could possibly form some adequate conception of a period so prodigious as one hundred millions of years, we should 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 75 not then feel so dissatisfied at being told that the age of the earth's crust is not greater than that. Here is one way of conveying to the mind some idea of what a million of years really is. Take a narrow strip of paper an inch broad, or more, and 83 feet 4 inches in length, and stretch it along the wall of a large hall, or round the wall of an apartment somewhat over 20 feet square. Recall to memory the days of your boyhood, so as to get some adequate conception of what a period of a hundred years is. Then mark off from one of the end of a strip ro of an inch. The ro of the inch will then represent one hundred years, and the entire length of the strip a million of years. It is well worth making the experiment, just in order to feel the striking impression that it produces on the mind. The methods which have been adopted in estimating geologi- cal time not only fail to give us the positive length of geo- logical periods, but some of them are actually calculated to mis- lead. The method of calculating the length of a period from the thickness of the stratified rocks belonging to that period can give no reliable estimate ; for the thickness of the deposit will depend upon a great many circumstances, such as whether the deposition took place near to land or far away in the deep re- cesses of the ocean, whether it took place at the mouth of a great river or along the sea-shore, whether it took place when the sea-bottom was rising, subsiding, or remaining stationary. Stratified formations 10,000 feet in thickness, for example, may, under some conditions, have been formed in as many years, while under other conditions it may have required as many centuries. Nothing whatever can be safely inferred as to the absolute length of a period from the thickness of the stratified formations belonging to that period. Neither will this method give us a trustworthy estimate of the relative lengths of geo- logical periods. Suppose we find the average thickness of the Cambrian rocks to be 26,000 feet, the Silurian to be 28,000 feet, the Devonian to be 6000 feet, and the Tertiary to be 10,000 feet, it would not be safe to assume, as is sometimes done, that the relative duration of those periods must have cor- responded to these numbers. Were we sure that we had got the correct average thickness of all the rocks belonging to each of those formations, we might probably be able to arrive at the relative lengths of those periods; but we can never be sure of 76 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March this. Those formations all, at one time, formed sea-bottoms; and we can only measure those deposits that are now raised above the sea level. But is it not probable that the relative po- sitions of the sea and land during the Cambrian, Silurian, Old- Red-Sandstone, Carboniferous, and other early periods of the earth's history diifered more from the present relative positions than the relative positions of sea and land during the Tertiary period diifered from the relative positions which obtain at present ? May not the greater portion of the Tertiary deposits be still under the sea-bottom ? And if this be the case, it may yet be found at some day in the distant future, when these deposits are elevated into dry land, that they are much thicker than we now conclude them to be. It is simply asserted that they may be thicker for anything that we know to the contrary ; and the possibility that they may, destroys our confidence in the accuracy of this method of determining the relative lengths of geological periods. The palaeontolo leal method of estimating geological time, either absolute or relative, from the rate at which species change appears to be even still more unsatisfactory. If we could ascer- tain by some means or other the time that has elapsed from some given epoch (say, for example, the glacial) till the present day, and were we sure at the same time that species have changed at an uniform rate during all past ages, then, by ascertaining the percentage of change that has taken place since the glacial epoch, we should have a means of making something like a rough estimate of the length of the various periods. But without some such period to start with, the palaeontological method is useless. It will not do to take the historic period as a base-line. It is far too short to be used with safety in determing the dis- tance of periods so remote as those which concern the geologist. But even supposing the palaeontologist had a period of sufficient length measured off correctly to begin with, his results would still be unsatisfactory ; for it is perfectly obvious, that unless the climatic conditions of the globe during the various periods were nearly the same, the rate at which the species change would certainly not be uniform. But we have evidence, geological as well as cosmical, that the climate of our globe has at various periods undergone changes of the most excessive character. The palaeontological method, as we have already seen, will give 60 millions of years or 240 millions of years as the period 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 77 that has elapsed since the commencement of the Cambrian period, just as we choose to adopt 250,000 years ago or 1,000,000 years ago as the commencment of the glacial epoch. It is the modern and philosophic doctrine of uniformity that has chiefly led geologists to overestimate the length of geological periods. This philosophic school teaches, and that truly, that the great changes undergone by the earth's crust must have been produced not by great convulsions and cataclysms of nature, but by those ordinary agencies that we see at work every day around us, such as rain, snow, frost, ice, and chemical action, &c. It teaches that the valleys were not produced by violent dis- locations, nor the hills by sudden upheavals, but that they were actually carved out of the solid rock by the sileiit and goutle agency of chemical action, frost, rain, ice, and running water. It teaches, in short, that the rocky face of our globe has been carved into hill and dale, and ultimately worn down to tlie sea-level, by means of these apparently trifling agents, not only once or twice, but probably dozens of times over during past ages. Now, when we reflect that with such extreme slowness do these agents perform their work, that we might watch their operations from year to year, and from century to century, if we could, without being able to perceive that they make any very sensible advance, we are necessitated to conclude that geological periods must be enormous. And the conclusion at which we thus arrive is undoubtedly correct. It is, in fact, impossible to form an adecjuate conception of the length of geological time. It is some- thing too vast to be fully grasped by our conceptions. What those to whom we have been alluding err in is not in forming too great a conception of the extent of geological periods, but in the way in which they represent the length of these periods in numbers. When we speak of units, tens, hundreds, thousands, we can form some notion of what these quantities represent ; but when we come to millions, tens of millions, hundreds of millions, thousands of millions, the mind is then totally unable to follow, and we can only use these numbers as representations of quantities that turn up in calculation. We know, from the way in which they do turn up in our process of calculation, whether they are correct representations of things in actual nature or not; but we could not, from a mere comparison of these quantities which the thing represented by them, say whether they were actually too small or too great. It is hero 78 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March that some geologists have erred : they have not made the neces- sary calculations, and found by the known rule of arithmetic that 100.000,000 is to small a number to represent in years the pro- bable age of the earth's crust ; but they look first at the phenomena and then at the figures ; and as the two produce totally difi"erent impressions, they pronounce the figures to be too small to represent the phenomena. If the geologist could find a method of ascertaining the actual rate at whiih these denuding agents do perform their work ; if it could be ascertained at what rate the face of the country is at present being denuded, how much, for example, per annum the general level of the country is being lowered and the valleys deepened, then we should have a means of ascertaining whether or not the agents to which we refer were really capable of pro- ducing the required amount ot change in the earth's surface in the allotted time. But mere conjectures in the absence of some positive determinations are worse than useless." Mr. Croll then proceeds to state that there is an available method afforded by the measurable rate of denudation of our continents by sub-aerial and oceanic agencies, and enters into elaborate calculations as to this rate in different regions, and at difierent geological times. The results are very curious and interesting, but the completion of the series of papers, containing the final conclusions of the writer, has not yet reached us. J. AV. D. Deep-Sea Dredging in Its Relations to Gteology. — The proceedings of the Royal Society contain a most interesting Report of Dr. Carpenter and Dr. Wyville Thomson, of dredgings conducted by them in 1868, at depths previously reached only by the comparatively inefficient means of the sounding line. In their deepest dredgings, 650 fathoms, they brought up not only Foraminiferoe, but sponges and star-fishes allied to Ophiura, thus showing that a somewhat varied life exists at these great depths. At this great depth, also, they found the calcareous mud of the bottom penetrated and covered with that diffused protoplasmic or sarcodic substance which Prof. Huxley has named Bathi/bius, and which seems to be an organism even less specialised than the ordinary Rhizopods, and to be, perhaps, a representative in the modern seas of the primeval Eozoon of the Laurentian rocks. Another remarkable discovery is that of the existence of a minimum temperature of 32'^ Fahrenheit at the sea-bottom, in 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 79 depths of 500 fathoms or more, in the ocean westward of Great Britain. This is a proof by actual thermometric observation of a fact on which the writer of this notice has long insisted on other grounds, viz., that cold and dense currents of water fluw over the sea bottom ; and must be taken into the account in our reasonings as to erosion and the distribution of life in the glacial period. Those who have hitherto denied this will now have an opportunity to modify some of their views with regard to Post- pliocene Geology. Other applications of these researches to Geology will be seen in the following extract : — " It can be scarcely necessary to point out in detail those various importjint applications of the foregoing conclusions to Geological science, which will at once occur to every Geologist who endeavours to interpret the past history of our globe by the light of the changes it is at present undergoing. But this Eeport would not be completed without some notice of these. — In the first place, it may, I think, be considered as proved that no valid inference can be drawn from either the absence or the scantiness of Organic Bemains in any unmetamorphosed sedimentary rock, as to the depth at which it was deposited. So far from the deepest waters being azoic, it has been shown that they may be peculiarly rich in Animal life. On the other hand, comparatively shallow waters may be almost azoic, if their temperature be low or their currents be strong; and thus even littoral formations may show but few traces of the life that might be abundant on a deeper bottom at no great distance. — Again, it has been shown that two deposits may be taking place within a few miles of each other, at the same depth and on the same geological horizon (the area of one penetrating, so to speak, the area of the other), of which the Mineral character and the Fauna are alike different that diiference being due on the one hand to the direction of the current which has furnished their materials, and on the other to the temperature of the water brought by that current. If our " cold area " were to be raised above the surface, so that the deposit at present in progress upon its bottom should become the subject of examination by some Geologist of the future, he would find this to consist of a barren Sandstone, including fragments of older rocks, the scanty Fauna of which would in great degree bear a Boreal character ; whilst if a portion of our " warm area" were elevated at the same time with the " cold area," the Geologist would be perplexed by the stratigraphical continuittj of 80 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March a Cretaceous formation, including not only an extraordinary abundance of Sponges, but a great variety of other Animal remains, several of them belonging to the vrarmer Temperate region, with the barren Sandstone whose scanty Fauna indicates a widely different climatic condition, which he would naturally suppose to have prevailed at a different period. And yet these two conditions have been shown to exist simultaneoudy at corres- ponding depths, over wide contiguous areas of the sea-bottom; in virtue solely of the fact that one area is traversed by an Equa- torial and the other by a Polar current *. Further, in the midst of the land formed by the elevation of the " cold area,'' our Geologist will find a bill of some 1800 feet high, covered with a Sandstone continuous with that of the land from which it rises, but rich in remains of Animnls belonging to a more temperate province ; and might easily fall into the mistake of supposing that two such different Faunae, occurring at different levels, must indicate two distinct climates separated in time, instead of indicating, as they have been shown to do, two contem- poraneous but dissimilar climates, separated only by a few miles horizontally, and by 300 fathoms vertically. — It seems scarcely possible to exaggerate the importance of these facts, in their Geological and Palaeontological relations, especially in regard to those more localized Formations which are especially character- istic of the later Geological epochs. But even in regard to those older Rocks, whose wide range in space and time would seem to indicate a general prevalence of similar conditions, it may be suggested whether a difference of bottom-temperature, depending upon deep oceanic currents, was not the chief determining cause of that r. markable contrast between the Faunae of different areas in the same Formation, which is indicated by the abundance and variety of the Fossils of one locality, and their scantiness and limitation of type in another ; as is seen, for example, when the " Primordial Zone '' of Barrande is compared with its equivalent • It may be said that the asserted existence of these Currents is a mere hypothesis, until an actual movement of water in opposite direc- tions has been substantiated. But, as Prof Buff has pointed out, the existence of such deep currents is a necessary consequence of the difference of surface-temperature between Equatorial and Polar waters; and those who raise the objection are consequently bound to offer some other conceivable hypothesis on which the facts above stated can be accounted far. I860.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 81 in North Wales. — Further, in the case of those Calcareous deposits which owe their very existence to the vast development of Organisms that possessed the power of separating Carbonate of Lime from the ocean-waters, temperature may be pretty certainly assumed to be the chief condition, not merely of the character of the Animal remains which those formations may include, but of the very production of their solid material." Calamites and Calamodendron. — {Flora of the Carhoni- feroxis Strata.) — Binney, Memoirs of Palaeontographical Society, vol. xxi. A wit who had been bored with the inspection of the stony treasures of a "fossil" botanist, once said that the latter had shown him all his "Calamities and felicities," and Mr. Binney would seem to agree as to the character of the Calamites, since he endeavours, though apparently with some scruples, to ex- tinguish the genus altogether. On this point we must take issue with him, and try to maintain the cause of the proscribed Calamite. The case stands thus: In the coal formation, one of the most com- mon kinds of fossil plants is that on which the genera Calamites and Calamodendron or C damitea have been founded. They have cylindrical stems, with longitudinal narrow ribs and transverse joints. This is the common character of the whole, but when more narrowly examined they resolve themselves into two distinct groups. The first and most common is that including stems with somewhat flat ribs, coated with a very thin coaly bark, and having, when well preserved, at the top of each rib where it reaches one of the transverse joints, a round or oval mark or cicatrice from ^hich a leaf or branchlet has been broken off. Plants of this kind are seen erect in the sandstones, with their outer bark perfectly preserved, and with their roots and leaves attached. The writer has specimens of two species in his collec- tion, showing the leaves in one species and the thin branchlets bearing leaves in another, attached to the surface of the cylindrical jointed ribbed stem, and he has other specimens as unequivocally showing the bases of such stems, giving off roots and also budding out into secondary stems. Farther, such stems were d< scribed and figured by him in the Journal of the Geological Society, vol. X., p. 35, in a paper to which Mr. Binney does not refer, though he mentions other papers in which the fact is less explicitly noticed. It may be added that Goeppert and Geinitz have shewn Vol. I. Q No. 1. 82 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March that these plants had a thin internal investment of vascular tissue, having somewhat large vessels with numerous rows of pores, a curious and peculiar form of scalariform tissue which will be found figured in Acadian Geology, page 442, where leaves of Calaiiiites actually found attached to the stems are also figured.* The plants above described are the true Calamites, of which several species occur in the Devonian and Carboniferous ; though except when the stems are very well preserved or have the leaves attached, it is difficult to fix the limits of these species ; and it is probable that many have been named which are merely varieties, depending on the age of the stems or their state of preservation. But beside these there occur striated and jointed stems of a very difierent character. Their internodes are usually, though not always, short, they have no distinct scars at the nodes, their ribs are usually narrower and more angular ; and when found well preserved, instead of being entire stems, they prove to be casts of an internal cavity surrounded by a thick woody envelope disposed in radiating wedges, and exhibiting not true scalariform tissue, but wood-cells with bordered pores under that transversely elongated variety in which they occur ia the axes of Cycads and the inner layer of the axes of SigUlaria, along with round pores, — also similar to those of Cycads. Stems of this kind have usually been described as Calamites, and many of them have been included under the species C. approximatus, but they are evidently very diflferent from the ordinary Calamites, and of much higher organization, approaching in this respect to Sigillarias. Unfortunately their external surface is not well preserved, but it appears to have been destitute of transverse joints, and to have been irreg-ulurly ribbed, at least near the base of the stem. Bronguiart places them with the Asterophyllites,t and suggests that some of the leaves referred to that genus may have belonged to Calamodendron ; but so far there is no certain evidence of this. Brongniart has on the whole very accurately stated the distinction between the two genera, Calamites and Calamoden- dron, in the work already cited ; as the writer has amply satisfied himself by the study of the beautiful Calamite brakes so well exposed in the cliffs of the South Joggins section, and of several * See also paper on Structures in Coal. Journal of Geological Society 1860, p. xviii., fig. 11. t Tableau des genres, 1849. 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 83 stems of Calamodendron showing structure. Cotta, who origin- ally described the structure of Calamodendron, named the genus Calamitea, and figured what he regarded as four distinct speciea in his " Dendrolithen." Brongniart regards two of the four species as probably coniferous; and for this reason, as well as the too close resemblance of the names Calamitea aud Calamltes, proposes for the genus the name Calamodendron. Mr. Binney, in the monograph before us, has figured portions of four specimens having internal striated or ribbed axes, and radi- ating bundles of wood-cells with transversely elongated pores, of the type already referred to, and which also occur in the remarkable Protnpitys of Goepp- rt from the lower carboniferous of Silesia. Mr. Binney refers all his specimens to one species, Calamodendron commune^ though one of them certainly appears to difi'er suffi- ciently from the others to warrant a specific distinction. The q^^estion what these specimens really are, with relation to de- scribed genera of carboniferous plants, is, however, somewhat difficult to settle, in the absence of the alternating zones of wood- cells and peculiar medullary rays of Calamitea as described by Cotta and Unger, and characterized by Brongniart as an organiz- ation '' toute speciale." This diiference should have suggested some doubt as to the identity of these curious specimens with Calamo- dendron ; and we think it not improbable that they will be found on further investigation to be entirely distinct from Calamitea of Cotta or Calamodendron of Brongniart. Ou the other hand it is perfectly clear that they have no connection whatever with Cala- mites proper, and cannot even belong to the same family with that genus, with which they have in reality no closer connection than that of accidental similarity of markings. Mr. Binney 's specimens are, however, evidently nearer to Calamodendron than to Calamites ; and this is all that can be said of them with safety with our present information. It is singular that Mr. Binney, who described erect Calamites in 1847, and who is well acquainted with erect Sigillarise, should not perceive that the fact of the former standing erect in sand- stone, with their roots attached as Mr, Binney has observed, and even with their leaves attached to the nodes as the writer showed in his paper of 1854, is absolute proof that they are not internal axes, but in reality casts of entire stems. It is alf-o somewhat strange to find such a statement as that on page 17 that "for many years Asterophyllites has been known as 84 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March " the leaves of Calamites." This will be new to most Paloeo- botanists, more especially when they turn to plate xv. and find a plant figured as " Asferophyllites longi/olia" which appears, if correctly represented, to be an Annularia, not far removed from, if not identical with Annularia longifolia, a plant usually regard, ed as distinct from Asterophyllites. Now it is true that Brong- niart has suggested that Asterophyllites may be branches of Calamodendron, and it is possible that this may be the case, as the leaves of Calamodendron are not certainly known, but the leaves of Calamites are well known, and have been figured by Lindley and Hutton, by Geinitz and by the writer, and they may be easily distinguished by very simple characters from those of Asterophyllites and Annularia, which they resemble merely in their verticillate arrangement. The leaves of the ypecies C. Cistii and C. Suckovii and C. Nodosus, all of which the writer has seen, are aculeate, thick and apparently triangular in cross section, and finely striate without any distinct rib. Those of Asterophyllites and Annularia are flat, and with a conspicuous median nerve. Badly preserved specimens of leaves of such species as Asterophyllites longifolia might be mistaken for Calamite leaves, but the characters of the genera are sufl&ciently distinct, and in so far as the writer's experience has extended, there is little evidence even of the association of Calamites and Asterophyllites in the same localities. We had intended to make some remark ©n the curious state- ment at page 15, as to fossilization, in connection with Professor Graham's discovery of Dialysis, which seems to ignore the fact that this whole subject has been again and again illustrated most fully both microscopically and chemically. We may, however, content ourselves with remarking in general, on this and some similar statements, that they are not so much matters of blame to Mr. Binney personally, as evidences of the remarkable neglect in England of the scientific pursuit of fossil botany. Though we cannot admit that Mr. Binney has in his monograph added mnch that is new to our knowledge of Calamites and Calamondendron, yet he has figured well several curious specimens of stems and some remarkable strobiles, the interpretation of which will come in due time; and for that we have good reason to thank him. More especially have we reason to do so, in view of the almost incredible fact that this is the first time the Palaeontographical Society, in the twenty-one years in which it has flourished, has 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. g5 recognized the existence of vegetable fossils ; and this at a time when the coal mines of England have probably reached their maximum of production, and when precious specimens, in quantity unsurpassed in any other country, are weathering on the rubbish heaps of the mines, or lying unnoticed in collections public and private. We siiould add that this omission is not to be remedied by the repetition of isolated and imperfect efforts like that in the present monograph ; but by associating the few competent cul- tivators of fossil botany into a committee of discovery, to ransack the existing collections and to prepare monographs exhaustive of their material with reference to each genus. j. w. D. PRE-HISTORIC MAN IN FRANCE. (ReUqiike AquitaniccB^ by Edouard Lartet & Henry Christy.)— Of this valuable work, which is intended to be completed in twenty parts, seven are now published. Thouo-h the name includes a large part of the south-east of France, it is more particularly devoted to the interesting pre-historic anti- quities which have been collected in that part of Perigord which comprises the Arrondissement of Sarlet in the Department of Dordogne. The remains are usually found in caves or " rock shelters " overlooking the rivers, and formed by the action of the atmo- sphere in wearing away tl e softer beds of rock. " The two sides of the valley rise in great escarpments of massive rock, more or less interrupted by ancient falls. Their summit is usually crowned with projecting cornices, below which are great horizontal niches, or hollow flutings. These great flutings are strikingly evident at the same level on the two sides of the valley where the escarpments overlook the river, and where they are continued in the rocks bordering the lateral valley, down which small streams run into the Vezere." The implements found in these caves consist wholly of chipped flint, and reindeer horn ; associated with large quantities of bones of reindeer, horse, aurochs, &c. No polished stone imple- ments have been found, nor bones of domesticated animals, which are supposed to have belonged to a much later period. The flint implements are principally of four kinds ; nuclei or cores, flakes, worked spear and arrow heads, and scrapers. The nuclei are blocks of flint which have been used to supply flakes from time to time, and have thus been gradually split down to lono- or 86 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March conictil shapes. Flake is a word used to designate any rough chip of flint of undeterminable form, which may have been used for any household purpose from a knife to an awl. The spear and arrow-heads are of all sizes, and sometimes very neatly worked, and finely chipped along the edges, they are of all forms, from long and tapering to very short and blunt. There seem also to have been different modes of fastening them to the haft, as some are equally pointed at both sides, others simply rounded, and others again notched. The scrapers are generally somewhat blunt at the edges,j^more or less pointed behind for fastening into a handle, and often rounded for the hand. They were used mostly for preparing and dressing skins. A considerable number of water-rounded, flattish pebbles, bearing a shallow artificial hollow on one side, have been found. These may have been used for preparing paint for personal decoration, or grinding up small quantities of grain ; but some of them seem too small for even such purposes. The most curious and interesting implements are those of bone, and reindeer and stag antler. On these great labour seems to have been expended, and some of them are not only neatly finished but highly ornamented, mostly with drawings of animals of the period. These very interesting works of art are sometimes executed with great spirit, and though often much out of propor- tion, are drawn in all essential points with fidelity to nature. The bone and horn implements comprise spear heads, harpoon heads, clubs, and other minor kinds of not very well defined uses. Among these last, is a very curious style of implement, made of deer antler ; flat and thin, and usually pierced with a row of holes, sometimes large enough to admit the finger. They seem too thin and weak to have been used for any kind of work ; and concerning them, a variety of conjectures have been hazarded, among others that they have been used as sceptres or symbols of authority. Their use, however, is still considered undeterminable* The bone spear heads are usually very long and pointed, and circular in section. These, however, are rare, in comparison with the harpoon points, which have been found in great number. They are long and narrow, with a succession of barbs extending gometitnes almost from end to end. They are generally some- what blunt at the point, which seems to indicate that they were used for h irpooning fish ; some of the smaller ones may, however, have been arrow heads. The barbs differ much in size, shape 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 87 and arrangement, but nearly all agree in having notches or grooves on their surface ; these, it is thought, may have served for holding some poison. The club is simply the beam of an antler, so arranged that the stump of one of the side antlers served as a point with which a very severe blow might, no doubt, be struck. The clubs are often very neatly made, and smoothed, and notched at the small end to afford a firm grasp to the hand. They bear a great analogy to the " Puck-a-maugun " of the Indians of North West America. The drawings found on these implements of bone and antler, usually represent the horse, reindeer, stag, and auroch ; these animals seeming to have been the staple food of the cave-dwellers. There appear also, though more rarely, drawings of fish. On one piece of bone there is a rough representation of a human figure, certainly not very flattering to the man of the period. A description of the opening of one of these bone caves, (that of Cro-Magnon), is given in great detail. It was discovered by the. removal of the accumulated talus from the foot of one of the cliffs overlooking the Vezere, for the construction of a railway embankment. It was a broad, but deep natural cavity, sheltered by a projecting ledge of hard rock. This cave was systematically worked out, and the history of its occupation by pre-historic man read by the deposits of ashes, etc., contained in it. The first visit paid to this cave by the hunters of the reindeer, is represented by a broad but shallow deposit of ashes and char- coal, containing worked flints and broken and calcined bones, and in its upper portion the stump of an elephant's tusk. After this first visit, it seems to have been unoccupied for a long period of time which is represented by a thick layer of debris, slowly accu- mulated by the weathering of the roof and walls. Above this is another thin layer of ashes, and then another layer of calcareous debris. Lastly, there is a thick series of beds of ashes, which seem to indicate that the cave was from this time used continu- ously as a place of residence ; or at least so continuously as not to allow of the intercalation of any roof debris. These beds of ashes are full of pieces of charcoal, bones, pebbles of quartz, worked flints, flint cores, and bone implements. The cave, in fact appears to have been used as a place of residence till the accumulated ashes and rubbish of the inhabitants, had rendered it too small and narrow. It was then abandoned, and above the last ash bed there is another thick deposit of roof debris. After §8 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll this last deposit had increased to a considerable thickness, and the cave was just high enough to crawl into, it was used as a place of sepulture. At the very back of the cave and partly buried in calcareous debris, were found bones referable to five human skeletons. Among these, the most perfect skulls were those of an old man and of a woman. The woman's skull had been pierced by some pointed instrument (in shape answering very well to that of one of the flint lance heads) which had been the cause of her death. Death did not, however, ensue imme- diately, as the edges of the cut were partly healed up ; indeed, it is the opinion of physicians to whom it has been referred that she survived several weeks. M. Louis Lartet writes, at p. 70, " Amidst the human remains lay a multitude of marine shells (about 300) each pierced with a hole, and nearly all belonging to the species Littorina littorea, so common on our Atlantic coasts. Some other species, such as Purpura lapillus, Turritella communis, &c., occur, but in small numbers. These also are perforated, and, like the others, have been used for necklaces, bracelets, or other orna- mental attire. Not far from the skeletons I found a pendant or aumlet of ivory, oval, flat, and pierced with two holes. M. Laganne had already a smaller specimen ; and M. Ch. Grenier, schoolmaster at Des Eyzies, has kindly given me another, quite similar, which he had received from one of his pupils. There were also found near the skeletons several perfo- rated teeth, a large block of gneiss ; also worked antlers of rein- deer, and chipped flints of the same types as these found in the hearth layers underneath." The bones Ibund in this cave com- prised, besides the commoner kinds as those of the reindeer, horse, &c., those of an enormous bear, of the mammoth, of the great Cave-Lion, &c. Another peculiarity of this cave is the absence of any engraving or carving. " Hence, we may refer this station of Cro-Magnon to the age immediately preceding that artistic period which saw in this country the first attempts of the engraver and the sculptor " Dr. Pruner Bey gives a very full and elaborate description of the skulls and other anatomical details found in the cave of Cro-Magnon, he considers the inhabitants of this cave, " as decidedly affiliated to the other Mongoloids of the age of the Reindeer," and in their cranial character to approximate most nearly to the Esthonians. He also writes, '* Lastly, as to the data 1869.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 89 of philology, the skulls are mute enough ; nevertheless, the con- formation of the bony phite leads us to couclude that, at least phonetically, the language of our cave-dwellers was neither Aryan nor Semitic. In fact we find their peculiar palate low and extend- ing forwards, only in those modern races which have a weak pho- nology, and sweet at times; and such are the Finnish idioms." All the various implements and remains described in the Reliquice Aquitanicce are profusely illustrated with excellent lithographs. Great attention is now given in the Old World to nrchcEological studies, and large quantities of valuable facts and collections have been accumulated. Anl though some of the theories founded on these facts are rather wild, still the facts themselves always remain, and nothing can tend more to the elucidation of the habits and customs of the ancient pre-historic man in Europe, and the uses of their implements, than the study of still existing tribes of savages, or those which have but lately died out. Especially as it is always found that the customs and implements of all savage people of little intelligence, wherever found, are so nearly identical. A great deal more attention might profitably be given to such studies in America, more especially in Canada, where we have so many interesting remains of its former possessors, and their immediate descendants still living among us. G. M. D. Note on the Blastoidea. — The remains of the Blastoidea have as yet proved to be extremely rare in the Canadian forma- tions. The whole collection in the Museum of the Survey consists of only five small specimens, two of Cadaster, and three Pentre- mites. The study of these with a view to their description led me to inquire into the subject of the functions of the summit apertures of the several genera that have been referred to the order. As our material was not sufiicient for such an investiga- tion, I appUed to S. S. Lyon, Esq., of Jefferson ville, Indiana, one of the Geologists of the Kentucky Survey, and he supplied me with a large collection from which I shall endeavor to prove : — 1. That the tubular apparatus beneath the ambulacra of Pentre- mites is the homologue of the so-called "Pectinated rhombs" of the Cystidea, — that the five orifices heretofore supposed to be ovarian apertures were respiratory in their function — the larger of the five being also the mouth and the vent, and that the central 90 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March aperture is not the mouth, but the homologue of (he ambulacral orifice of the Cystidea and Palaeozoic crinoids. 2. That in the summit of the genus Niideocrinus, there are sixteen apertures — ten respiratory, five ambulacral, and one which is both mouth and vent. There is no aperture in the centre of the summit. 3. That Cadaster does not belong to the Blastoidea. e. b. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. English Plant Names. — That most troublesome weed to farmers, the Couch-grass (Triticum repms), has a variety of names. In Cumberland and Essex it is Twitch; in Cheshire and Shropshire, Scutch; in North Buckinghamshire, Squitch ; in South Buckinghamshire, Couch, or Cooch-grass ; all evidently having the same derivation, but an obscure one. In the Norfolk *' Quicks," and Warwickshire " Quicken-grass " we have a clue. No plant is so retentive of vitality as this Triticum repens ; the smallest piece left in the ground will grow. All these names are but forms of the A-S cwic, living, a word with which we are familiar as occurring in the Apostles' Creed in the English Prayer-book, where " the quick " are referred to in opposition to " the dead." The words "quicks'' and "quickset" are applied to living hawthorn hedges as distinguished from dead-wood fences ; cwic-heam, the living tree, was, according to Dr. Prior, the A.-S. for the Aspen (^Fopulus tremida), on account of its ever-moving leaves; and Quick- in-hand was an old name for the Touch-me-not (^Impatiens Noli-me-tangere), from the suddennes with which its seeds discharge themselves when handled. Many north-country names are derived from Swedish and Danish sources. The black heads of the Ribwort Plantain (FhUago lanceolata) are, in the northern countries, called kemps- We find the origin of this in the Danish kcempe, A.-S. cempa, a warrior. Children often play with the flower-stalks, each endea- vouring to knock the head off the other's mimic weapon ; and this game is still known in Sweden,, where the stalks are called kam par (h'rior). The same game is very popular with the Cheshire children, who term it " playing at conquerors;" the heads them- selves they call " fighting cocks." Rushes (Jimcl) are called sivs 1869.J BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 91 and seaves, from the Da. siv, Sw. saf, a rush. The name Roan, Ran, Royne, or Rowan-tree, by which Pyrus aucuparla is known in Scotland and the northern counties, comes from Da ronn, Sw. runn, which is traceable to the " 0. Norse runa, a charm, from its being supposed to have power to avert the evil eye" (Prior). Vaccinium 3Iyrt'dlus is, in Cumberland and Yorkshire, known as Blue-berry, in Scotland Blackberry, from Sw. hJoa-hcer, or Da. hbllebar, a dark berry; its more ordinary name, Bilberry, is probably from the same source. From the German and Dutch we obtain several of our common- est plant-names. Buckwheat (^Polygonum Fdgojjyruiii) , for instance, is from Da. hoekweit, G. biichwaitzen, beechwheat, ''from the resemblance of its triangular seeds to beachnuts, a name adopted with its culture, from the Dutch " (Prior). The Fig- worts (^Scrophularia aquatica and S. nodosa) take their name, Brown-wort, from G. braunwurz. probably in reference to their dark foliage and brown stems and flowers. Dr. Prior thinks it more probable that it is from the plants "growing so abundantly about the brunnen, or public fountains of German towns and village;" but the former derivation seems to me the more likely especially as neither species is peculiar to these localities. In Devonshire the name Brunnet is applied to one or both species • this is probably a corruption of brownwort, or po:-^sibly an abbre- viation of brown-nettle ; the word Burnet is not very different from this, and that is applied to a brown-stemmed plant (Poterium Sanguisorba) , Names of French origin are yet more frequent. The Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum) gives us a familiar example; it is in French dent-de-lion, lion's tooth, although the reason for the name is not satisfactorily known. At Glasgow the Gooseberry {Ribes Crrossidaria) is called groset ; in other parts of Scotland, grosert, grose and groser : the Black Currant (E. nigrum) is gazles in Sussex; and in Kent the same name is applied to the White Cur- rant. We find the origin of all these words in the Fr. groseille. In the Ayscough MSS., as quoted in Notes and Queries (Series IV. i. 532), we read that the Raspberry (Riibiis Idoius) is called framboise by the country people in Dorset ; and the St. George's Mushroom {Agarims Georgil) is known as champeron to the people about Abingdon. Mushroom itself, by the way, is but an anglicised form of Fr. mousseron, formerly mouscheron. " One of the most conspicuous of the genus (Agaricns), the A. miiscarius, 92 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March is used for the destruction of flies, mousches ; and this seems to be the real source of the word, which by a singular caprice of language, has been transferred from this poisonous species to mean, in the popular acceptation of it, the wholesome kinds exclusively' (Prior.) Tutsan (Hi/pericum Androscemum) is from Fr. toiite saine, a name by which it has been known since the time of Gerarde, who gives this explanation of it. In Buckinghamshire a corrupted form of this is still in use in the words Tipsen-leaves and Touch-and-heal ; in Hampshire it is Touchen-leaves. In the second of these we have an example of the tautology so frequently found in English names where foreign words have been translated and then both original and translation have been combined. The '' Touch-and " is the same as Touchen, and is evidently a corrup- tion of toute saine ; the " heal " is a translation of toute saine. It has been converted into Touch-anc?-heal to make sense of it ; and the word is now, perhaps, supposed to indicate the rapidity with which the healing properties of the plant take effect. From Latin names, the transition to another class, in a measure connected with them, and introduced by the same agency, is an easy one ; I refer to what I may term religious plants, such as have been in some manner associated with, and have taken their titles from, the pious observances of former times. The Church taught by the eye as well as by the ear ; and by natural objects sought to recall not only, as we shall presently see, her more sol- emn seasors, but the saints whose festivals she kept. The coincidence, for example, of the flowering of a plant with the feast of a saint led to a connection between the two, and eventually, in many cases the name of the latter was bestowed upon the flower. A natural feeling of reverence seems to have prevented at any rate in England, the dedication of plants to either person of the Blessed Trinity ; and the few exceptions to this rule with which I am acquainted, are associated with our Lord in His human nature exclusively. The Blessed Virgin, however, who held a foremost place among the saints, is commemorated, under the title of ' Our Lady,' by which she was formerly more generally known in Eng- land, in the Lady's Bedstraw or Bedestraw (Galium verum)^ Lady's Smock (Cardamine pratensls), Lady's Finger (Anthi/llis vidneraria), Lady's Tresses (Spiranthes autumnalis), Lady's Comb (Scandix pecteii), Lady's Mantle, (AlcJiemilla vulgaris')^ and very many more. During Puritan times it became the custom to substitute the name of Venus for that of the Blessed 1869.J BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 93 Virgin. Thus Lady's Comb became Venus's Comb, and so on ; and this substitution was fostered by the false classical spirit which became fashionable during and after the reign of Charles II. Among plants popularly dedicated to other saints, we may notice St. John's Wort (Hi/per icum especially H perforatum), in many places corrupted into Sinjonswort, which blossoms about St. John the Baptist's day, June 24; St. James' Wort (C 'psella hursa pastoris), and many more will be found in herbals. In some cases, however, we must admit that names referred by modern writers to a similar dedication have really a very different origin. Herb Bennett, for instance, is said to commemorate St. Bennet or Benedict, although, as I have shown, it has a very different origin ; Timothy -grass, (Phleum pratense), which really took that name by being brought into cultivation by one Timothy Hanson, is supposed to have been dedicated to St. Timothy ; Paul's Betony (^Veronica officinalis), which, according to Dr. Prior, refers to an old author, Paul ^gineta, who described it as a betony — to St. Paul ; and so on. In the floral kalendar, the Church's seasons were duly noticed. The Holly (^Ilex aqiii/olium) from its use in church decorations at that season, is in many places still called Christmas ; the Snowdrop {Galanthus nivalis) in its old name " Fair Maid of February," commemorates the Feast of the Purification (Feb. 2) ; Lent brings its Lent lillies (^Narcissus pseudo-Narcissus) ; Palm Sunday its "palms," as the willow catkins are pretty generally called ; Easter, its Paschal, or Pasque, flower (Anemone Pulsatilla ; the days preceding the Ascension are referred to in Rogation-flower or procession-flower (Polygala vulgaris), which received its name from its use in the garlands which were carried in the religious processions which marked Rogation-week; Herb Trinity (Viola tricolor) pointed to Trinity Sunday ; the Virgin's Bower (Clematis), to the Assumption ; and the Michaelmas Daisy (Aster) to the feast of SS. Michael and All Angels. But we must pass on to the consideration of another class. Many plants take their names from a resemblance, real or imagi- nary, to animals or parts of animals. The tail-like inflorescense of some has suggested many names; amongst which are Mouse- tail (Myosurus minimus), with the carpels arranged on the long slender receptacle; Cat's tail (Typha lati/olia) with a thick stout spike, a name applied also to Phleum pratense ; Hare's-tail (La- gurus ovatus), remarkable for its soft flowerheads ; Squirrel-tail 94 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March (Hordciwi maritimum, in Canada to H. jubatum) ; and Dog's- tail {Gynosurus crisfatu."^ , The Horse-tails (^Eqaiset(x) ^ flower- less plants, have their long slender branches growing in whorls up the barren stem; the name is particularly appropriate to E. maximum. The gaping corolla of the Snapdragon (^Antirrhinum majtis) has suggested, not only that appellation, but the allied ones, Rabbit's-mouth, Lion's-snap, and Dog's-mouth. The Hound's-tongue Fern (ScoJnpendrium vulgare) took its name from the shape of the fronds ; the narrow slender spike of Opliioglossum vulgatum accounts for its name, Adder's tongue. The long projecting nectary of many species of Delphinium suggested the name Lark's-spur, or Lark's-claw, a name which is applied in Buckinghamshire to the Toadflax (^Linaria vulgaris), from a similar peculiarity in its blossoms. The soft heads of Trifolinm arvense render Hare's-foot appropriate ; those of the Kidney Vetch (^Anthyllis vulneraria) are called Lamb-toes ; Dactylis glomerata is Cock's Toot, from the shape of the panicle (Prior). Any one who will take the trouble to look through a list of English plant-name; will not fail to observe that many of them have the name of some animal entering into their composition, used in a different sense from those which we have been consider- ing. Formerly I alluded to the meaning which "horse" has in composition — i. e., large, or course, as in horse-chestnut, horse- blobs, horse-gowans, and many more. " Dog," as an aflix, usually conveys worthlessness : thus we have Dog-Violet, a sctntlcss species, Dog's-grass (^Triticum repens), a useless species of a genus which contains wheat (^T.s itivum) ; Dog's Camomile (^Matricaria Chamomilla) ; etc. This is not always its meaning ; the Dog-wood (Cornus sanguinea) means dagge-wood, dagge being the old Euglish equivalent for a dagger, and the wood having been used for skewers (Prior). Dog Rose (^Rusa canind) may mean, par excellence, Prick-flower, a very appropriate name for it • but cultivated roses are equally prickly, so that is probably implies a worthless rose. " Ox," " bull," or " cow," differ somewhat from "horse," in composition : they imply something large but not of necessity coarse. Bulrush (^Scirpus lacustris) is thought by Dr. Prior to have been originally ^oo/-rush, " from its growth in pools of water, and not, like the other rushes, in mire ;" but Mr. Hol- land considers that the name simply denotes a large rush. ' Toad' means false or spurious: Toadflax, for example, means, as I have before endeavoured to show, a false flax, from its .superficial 1869.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY, 95 resemblance, when out of flower, to the flax of commerce ; Dr. Prior, however, favours a difierent derivation. — Abridged from Science Gossip. The Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club introduced a novelty into its proceedings by devoting a day to explore the Fungi of the district where the Club meets, and after a critical examination of the species collected, closing its meeting by a feast, the principal feature of which was the edible species which were the spoil of the days ' foray. ' Such excursions will certainly bring into notice many species of a tribe of plants which are not only extremely fugacious, but also very enigmatical in their appearance. They will also overcome popular prejudices against a wholesome and nutritious source of food almost entirely overlooked, and introduce additional valuable species to those who already have found out their virtues, as will appear from the report of the dinner wliich follows, and for which, as well as that of the excursion, we are indebted to the kindness of Dr. Bull. The members met at the Mitre Hotel, at 9 o'clock, Friday, October 9, 1868, and after transacting the ordinary business of the Club, they set out for Holme Lacy Park, accompanied by Mr. Edwin Lees, F.L.S., and Mr. W. G-. Smith, F.L.S. Leaving their conveyance, and entering the grounds of Sir E. L. S. S. Stanhope, a beautiful group of the maned Agaric (Goprinus coniatus) attracted attention. It took almost the form or' a circle, though not one of those that usually do so. It is very common, and as interesting and handsome in appearance as it is good to eat, if people did but know it. The pretty crested Agaric, (Agaricus cristatus,) also edible, and A. vulgaris, were next gathered, and on a bank under Scotch fir-trees several specimens of the not very common Boletus granulatus were found, and, as a matter of course, some bunches of the common poisonous Agaricus fascicularis. A flower-bed in the garden had a fine crop of A. infundibuliformis in it, and a cluster of Boletus subtomentosus was gathered below the terrace walk. This Boletus was also seen many times during the day. The Club had a part of their dinner to procure in the pjirk, not in the shape of venison from the deer, but as vegetable beef-steaks from the trees. Several specimens of Fistulina hepatica, the ' liver fungus, ' or J vegetable beef-steak, ' as it 96 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March has been called, were met with — one nearly two feet in diameter, and weighing ten or twelve pounds — on nine diiferent trees, and had the search for it been continued many more might doubtless have been found. Scattered about in proper hunting order the members climbed the hill. They were specially directed to look out for the very rare Cantharellus cinerens, which was found here three years since, but which Berkeley marks as "not found since the days of Bolton." It was not found, however. The delicate Agaricus prunulus, ' vegetable sweetbread,' as it has been termed, was met with, together with A. campestris, A. arvensis, and its smaller and more delicate variety A. cretaceus, all, of course, edible ; also the small puflC-ball, Lycoperdon gemmatum, the large rough-stemmed Boletus scaler, the buff gilled Russula alutacea, the less common R. vesca, and the Parasol Agaric (J., procerus). Some others were collected here not quite so good in character. Some fine pale orange specimens of this last poisonous Agaric were gathered, which at first sight resembled the delicious edible ' orange milk Agaric,' so highly recommended, and figured in the Club's Transactions last year. It had, how- ever, a shaggy woolly margin, without the orange gills and the orange -coloured milk. As the hour for dinner approached, the party remounted and returned to Hereford. Some time was devoted to an examination of the spoil, and then twenty-one sat down to partake of a dinner which fitly closed the ' Foray among the Funguses.' With the fish and the soup came the first novelty in the form of Oreades ketchup. It was good with either, and as guest after guest helped himself to an experimental taste, it was curious to hear one after the other ask again for " that bottle." It was a brilliant success. Hie every one with a regard for table luxuries, and that should include all sensible people ; hie to your lawns and grassplots and gather while still you may, the pretty little fairy-ring Champignon (^Maras7nius oreades', and make for yourselves a ketchup, that is as superior to the ordinary vile black compound you meet with as champagne is to gooseberry. Don't you know it ? Then get a member of the "Woolhope Club to point it out to you, or better still, borrow the last volume of the Club's Transactions, and there you will find a pretty coloured picture of it, and receipts, moreover, for cooking it in many ways. Have a care to keep down the spice, however, for if in too great 1869.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 97 abundance, it destroys the true delicate delicious flavour of the Agaric itself, A side dish of stewed kidneys narrowly escaped being mistaken for a dish of sliced Agarics, and another of sweetbreads with buttons of the Horse Mushroom (^Agaricus arvensis) was too good to travel far. Next followed a dish of beef-steak, animal and vegetable, deliciously mingled, to the advantage of both, and at the same time a dish of the Flstulina hepatica, the ' liver fungus,' or ' vegetable beefsteak,' by itself was handed round. The slices were cut from the large one gathered in the morning. The next Agaric to appear was Hydmmi repmidum, < the spiked Mushroom,' from Haywood forest. It was stewed and broiled, and those members of the Club who had resolved themselves into a committee of critical taste, and to whom, therefore, all dishes were immediately brought fresh and hot, quickly separated the Agarics from their gravy, and found them excellent, and particularly the broiled ones, not at all unlike the oysters to which they have been compared. Then followed the Parasol Agaric, Agarkus procerus, but its delicious flavour, perhaps the lightest and best of all of them, not excluding the common Mushroom, was drowned in its over-condimented gravy. The fairy-ring Champignon (^Marasmius oreades) appeared then, broiled on toast, after the admirable receipt of Soyer. We give it here in full, for it is the very best receipt for broiling Agarics, or Mushrooms, of every kind. " Place young fresh Agarics, or Mushrooms, on toast freshly made and properly divided. Salt, pepper, and place upon each one a small piece of butter (or a little scalded or clotted cream). Put one clove on the toast, then cover with a glass and bake for a quarter of an hour, or broil before a quick fire for twenty minutes. Do not move the glass until it is served up, by which time the vapour will have become condensed and gone into the toast, and when the glass is removed a fine aroma of Mushroom will pervade the table." (N.B. — A common kitchen basin will answer the purpose of a glass as a cover for baking, though it is by no means so elegant.) A dish of Agaricus prunulus was served simply stewed. The Agaric had fair play — salt and spice were kept in due abeyance — and "delicious" was the unanimous verdict. This dish never reached a third of the way down the table I Many other Agarics might have been dressed, but it was Vol. I. G ^o. 1. 98 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March thought best not to tax too highly the patience of the cook ; and BO with the distribution of dried specimens of the fairj-ring Champignon to all who wished it, the feast of Agarics was over for the day. This excellent Agaric will keep well, when threaded on string and dried and kept dry, through the winter, readily imparting its flavour to soups or made dishes as required. — Condensed from the Journal of Botany. Mimicry in Nature. — The few remarks on so-called "Mimicry in Nature," which I introduced in my new work on Central America, particularly relate to the predominance of the Willow form on river-banks. It is almost unnecessary to say that in the work from which the extract is taken it was undesirable to insert more than a few names in support of my observations, but it might not be diflacult to show that most plants bearing leaves of a true Willow form do grow by running streams. To say nothing of those species of Salix having Willow leaves (or those Salices not having Willow leaves, and not growing by running streams, as S. herbacea, etc.), I would remind you of the different species of Nerium (Oleander), our Epilohium angustifoUum (yulgo, Willow herb), Lytlirum Salicaria, etc. That some plants are found by rivers which do not have Willow leaves (as pointed out) has, in my opinion, nothing to do with the question, how it comes to pass that the Willow form predominates to so great an extent in such localities. The answer may be very simple, but at present it has not come forth. About the term ' mimicry' there should be a clear understanding. It is, so far, a thoroughly objectionable one, as by employing it either in zoology or botany, the whole question is prejudged ; indeed, it is assumed — 1, That organisms have the power to mimic other organisms; and 2, That they have come in contact with those organisms which they are supposed to mimic. Employ the terms 'outer resemblance' instead of mimicry, and we are on neutral, undisputed ground. The subject of these external resemblances of species and whole genera to others having an entirely different organic structure, is a wide and complicated one ; and I think that the best way to approach it is to go through the whole vegetable kingdom, and take note of every case where the outer features of one species or genus are reflected in any other. Some years ago my late lamented friend. Dr. Schultz-Bipontinus, read a paper on his favourite order, the 1869.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 99 Composita), in wliich he pointed out that in this, the hirgest of all phanerogamous orders, the habit of almost every other order of the vegetable kingdom cropped up again. In Euphorbiacea3, and other large orders, similar instances are noted. Sometimes this outer resemblance is perfectly startling. I remember finding a Sandwich Island plant, which looked for all the world like Thomasia solanacea of New Holland, and well-known Buettneriacea of our gardens, but which on closer examination turned out to be a variety of Solanum Nelsoni ; the resemblance between these two widely separated plants being quite as striking as that pointed out in Bates's Travels on the Amazon, between a certain moth and a humming-bird. This outer resemblance between plants of different genera and orders has played us botanists many a trick, and is one of the many causes of the existence of some almost incomprehensible synonyms in our systematic works. Wendland in his monograph on Acacia described many good species, and thought he knew an Acacia when he saw one ; yet one of his new ones {A. dolahrlformis) which he referred to the genus from habit alone, turned out to be a Daviesia. Few men had a better knowledge of Ferns than Kunze, yet 'mimicry,' Puck-like, played him a trick when, relying on the nature of the leaf and venation, he referred Stangeria paradoxa, a Cyead, to true Ferns ; and Sir W. J. Hooker, good botanist as he was, would never have figured a Veronica as a Conifer, if 'mimicry,' — using the term for the last time — had not been at play. At present I have no theory to propose on this subject, but whoever has, ought to both bear in mind that it must apply with equal force to the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and to say that these resemblances are merely accidental, counts for nothing until it shall have been proved that there are such things as " accidents in nature." — Seemann, in Gardener's Chronicle. The ordeal poison-nut. — In a recent number of the Journal of Botany Dr. Bennett, of Sydney, says that " this elegant tree is now naturalized in New South Wales, and is readily propagated. There is a noble specimen of it in the Sydney Botanical Gardens, which attracts attention from its bright green foliage, delicate and fragrant blossoms and pendulous, egg-shaped fruit. The label, close to the tree, inscribed ' Madagascar Ordeal Poison Tree,' oc- casions it to be treated with some respect by visitors to the gar- 100 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March dens, for while other things suffer from their depredations it has been remarked that this is the best preserved tree in the collection." This specimen is twenty feet high, and the circumference of the branches full fifty feet. It flowers in November and December, and is often at the same time covered with fruit in different stages of maturity. The fruit, which is oviform and about the size of a hen's egg, contains a hard nut with a dark brown shell,* the white kernel of which is in size, appearance and taste like a bitter almond. The Tanghmia veneniflua is a specific poison for the heart and muscles, acting powerfully on the heart. Some of the natives of Madagascar say that there are two kinds of these trees, the one poisonous, the other only emetic, and so similar in appear- ance that none but the administrators know the difference, and that even they sometimes err and kill when they intend only to sicken. Dr. Bennett suggests that there may be two species of Tanghinia found in Madagascar, one of which may be analogous to the T. ManglKxs of India, the milky juice of the fruit of which is used as a purgative. Canadian Wild Flowers.— Under this title Mrs. Fitzgib- bon has published a very pretty volume for the parlor table, consisting of ten lithographic plates of some of our showiest wild flowers, drawn on stones by herself and afterwards coloured by hand. The letter-press, consisting of popular descriptions of each plant, is by Mrs. Traill, and is part of a work by that authoress still in MS. " descriptive of the most remarkable of the wild " flowers, shrubs and forest trees of Canada.'' Mrs. Traill's English names of flowers are excellent; in lieu of the vulgar Dutchman's Breeches for Dicentra Cucullaria she proposes the characteristic Fly-flower. The elegant name Gossamer-fern for Dichsonia punctilohula is also hers. The publisher's portion of the work is the least satisfactory. The plates are on poor paper, and the text needs the supervision of a proof-reader. The following is the list of species illustrated by the ten plates : — Anemone nemorosa Linn. Trientalis Americana Pursh. Hepatica acutiloba BeO. Penstemon pubescens Solatid. Aquilegia Canadensis Linn. Veronica Americana Linn. Nymphsea odorata Aiton. Castilleia coccinea Spreng. Nuphar advena Aiton. Arisama triphyllum Torr. Sarracenia purpurea Linn. Orchis spectabilis Linn. * Some of these nuts are in the Society's museum. 1869.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 101 Dicentra Canadensis DeC. Cypripedium parviflorum Salitb. Claytonia Virginica Linn. pubescens Willd. Geranium maculatum Linn. spectabile Swartx. Rubus odoratus Linn. Iris versicolor Linn. Rosa blanda Aiton. Trillium grandiflorum Saliab. Rudbeckia fulgida Aiton. erectum Linn. Campanula rotundifolia Linn. Uvularia grandiflora Smith. Pyrola elliptica Nuttall. Lilium Philadelpbioum Linn. uniflora Linn. Erythronium Americanum Smith. Zoological Notes. — We have received an analytical chart of the birds of Canada, by J. J. G. Terrill, of Hamilton, C. W. The classification of Dr. Baird is adopted, and the orders, sub-orders, families, genera, species, &c., are given in a tabular form. It will prove very useful to schools, and to students of Canadian ornithology generally. The list contains 242 species, which have been principally recorded from Western Canada. Some few additional species of marine birds occur in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and on the other hand a few birds have been catalogued from Western Canada that have not as yet been found in the Province of Quebec. Dr. Elliot Coues' monograph on the American Alcidoe, pub- lished in the journal of the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for January and February, 1868, is of considerable interest to the student of North American ornithology. It is not yet very certainly ascertained whether the Great Auk has ever been taken on the coast of Eastern North America, The species is reported to breed on a low rocky island to the south-west of Newfoundland. Mr. J. Wolley has shewn that this species is not a bird of high latitudes, as was at one time supposed, and an interesting account by this author is quoted of its supposed extinction in Iceland ; also his statement that the last specimens of the species known to have been taken were captured in 1844. The Razor Bill and the common Puffin both breed in the River and Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and it is not unlikely that the "large-billed" puffin, Fratercula glacialis, may be met with in Eastern Canada. The tufted puffin, it appears, occasionally occurs on the East Coast of North America, it has been thought an almost exclusively western species. Other Canadian examples of the order are the Sea Dove, Mergulus alle, and four species of Guillemot, of each of which detailed descriptions are given in Dr. Coues' essay. 102 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March In Silliman's Journal for November, 1868, Prof. Marsh shews that the Siredon lichenoides of Baird is the immature form of Amblystoma mavortium of the same author. An interesting account is given of the gradual metamorpLosis of the species, showing its various changes of colour, the absorption of the dorsal and caudal membranes, and finally that of the external brauchioe. The author states that there can be little doubt that this creature breeds in its immature or Siredon state. Dumeril's researches on the Mexican Axolotl seem to prove this ; also that all Siredons are larval Salamanders, a circumstance which Cuvier appears to have suspected. Prof Cope's review of the species of Amblystomidoe, a genus of tailed butracbians, from the 4th number of the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia for 1868, is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of North American Amphibia. Two species of this genus, so far as we are aware, occur in Lower Canada. The Amblystoma punctatum is the species formerly known as Salamandra subviolacea, and A.. Jeffersonianum is the Canadian form which used to be called by Dekay, Salamandra granulata. The seventh volume of the British Museum Descriptive Catalogue of Fishes, by Dr. Grunther, published in 1868, contains some matter of special interest to our local zoologists. Descrip- tions are given of several of the Canadian species of the difl&cult and intricate family of the Cyprinidce, a group which includes the suckers, chubs, minnows, dace, &c. The following species are described from the neighbourhood of Montreal, and examples of each of them were forwarded to Dr. Gunther by the writer of this summary. Catastomus teres, Mitchill. Catastomus carpio, Guv. & Val. Hyborhynchus notatus, Agaasiz. Rhinicthys marmoratus, Agasaiz. Leuciscus cornutus, Mitchill. Leucosomus pulchellus, Storer. In addition to these Catastomus hudsonius, Lesuer ; Carpiodes cyprinus, Lesuer; and Rhinicthys atronasus, Mitchill; also inhabit the vicinity of Montreal. A little fish common in the St. Lawrence, which used to be referred to the Abramis Smithii of Richardson, is the Hyodon tergisus of Lesuer, and is not a true bream. From various parts of Western Canada the follow- 1869.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 103 ing species are recorded, and full descriptions are given in the volume under consideration. Catastomus aureolus, Lesuer. Lakes Erie and Superior. Catastomus macrolepidotus, Lesuer. Lake Erie. Ceraticthys plumbeus, Agasaiz. Lake Superior. " dissimilis, Kirtland. Lake Erie. Leuciscus Hudsonius, Clinton. Lake Superior. " rubellus, Agasaiz. " " Leucosomus corporalis, Mitchill. Lake Erie. The common herring of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and of the Atlantic Coast of N. America, is looked upon as identical with the European species ; and, as Dr. Gunther states positively that whitebait are young herrings, there would seem to be no reason why this delicacy should not be procurable in Eastern Canada. We notice also that in Dr. Gunther's Catalogue of the Tail-less Batrachians of the British Museum, he considers that the Rana sylvatica of Leconte, a land frog which is frequent on Montreal mountain and elsewhere in Lower Canada, is only a variety of the commonest European frog, the Rana temporaria. Recent investigations have shewn that the late Prof. E. Forbes' theory that animal life would not be found at great depths in the sea is untenable. Living examples of all the great divisions of the invertebrata have been taken at depths of over one hundred fathoms outside of the Florida reef, and crustaceans, annelids and radiates were dredged in 517 fathoms water in the same locality. Researches off the Coasts of Portugal and Norway give similar results, as also do the investigations of Dr. Carpenter and Prof. Wyville Thompson, off the Faroe Islands, and quite a new zone of animal life has been thus recently revealed to us. J. F. W. A Butterfly Parasite. — At a meeting of the Montreal Microscopic Club, one of the members exhibited specimens of a vegetable parasite on the tibia and tarsus of the dark swallow- tailed Butterfly, Papilio A^terias. The insect was captured at Brantford, Ont,, last summer, along with three other specimens, at the same time and place. The parasite was only found on one of these, growing on the spines of the tibia, tarsus and tips of the ungues. Attention is at present directed to the circumstance, and a full description will be given in the next number of this journal. Mosquitoes in England. — Most of the readers of The Natur- alist will remember the outcry last summer in reference to the 104 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March appearance of the Mosquito in England. Some of the observers maintained that they were simply English gnats, and not the genuine insect. The following is a short paragraph from " Science Gossip," for January, 1869 : — " Woolwich Mosquitoes. — At the Entomological Society's meeting of November 2nd, 18G8, the Secretary exhibited a specimen of the so-called Mosquito sent from Woolwich, which proved to be a species of Chri/sopa.^' Hence it will be evident that two or three different insects have been confounded together under the designation " Mosquitoes " in that locality, and to none of them does the name strictly apply. " Guide to the Study of Insects, " by Dr. Packard. — Part V. of this excellent work is out, and contains a continuation of Lepidoptera. An account is given of the transformation of several species ; also, two full-page illustrations of the male and female and female moth, " Telea Polyphemus.^^ This. work is one of the most valuable of its kind in North America ; the sub- ject is treated of scientifically, yet in a popular manner. The cuts are excellent ; and this number is evidently one of the results of the labors of a practical and experienced Entomologist. The " Guide " is invaluable for the use of schools and of agriculturists. One of the ways to interest our farmers and add to their success may be learnt in the pages of this work. Its perusal might make them acquainted with those insects which are injurious or bene- ficial to their crops, so that they might know their friends from their enemies. In order to interest this class in advancing scien- tific agriculture, it would be well to put such works into the hands of their children at school. A. s. R. " The Canadian Entomologist," Toronto. — The January number contains notes on Canadian Lepidoptera, by the Rev. C. J. S. Bethune, Secretary of the Entomological Society of Canada ; also, a list of Diurnal Lepidoptera collected by Mr. B. Billings, Ottawa, In this list, under the name " Vanessa Milberti," the writer states " that sixty individuals of this species had remained in the pupa state in the breeding cage only four days. What was the temperature of the vivarium which caused so rapid a metamorphosis ? A. s. B. 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 105 CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. On Hydraulic Cements.— It is well known that the calcina- tion of argillaceous limestone gives rise to cements which have the power of hardening under water. Various explanations of this property have been proposed. An alkaline silicate, like soluble glass, is known to harden by silicifying calcareous rocks and cements ; and Kuhlmann supposed that a silicate of this kind, formed during the calcination of argillaceous and more or less alka- liferous matters, might play an important part in the hardening of hydraulic limes. According to Rivot and Chatonnay, on the other hand, there are formed during the calcination of mixtures of car- bonate of lime and clay, three new compounds, a silicate of lime, a double silicate of lime and alumina, and an aluminate of lime. These three compounds they supposed to combine directly with water, so that the solidification of the cement was like that of calcined gypsum, a simple hydratation. According to the recent experiments of Fr^my, only one of these compounds, the simple silicate of lime, has the property of thus combining with water. Further, he has shown that although pure clay or kaolin, a hydrous silicate of alumina, does not produce a hydraulic cement when mixed with lime, yet, after exposure to a low red heat it forms, with lime, a perfect cement. The foreign matters often present in clays are without action in this process. The explana- tion of this curious result seems to be furnished by the observa- tion of Fr^my, that a clay which abandoned nothing to hydrochloric acid yielded abundance of alumina to the same acid after calcin- ation. From this it whould appear that a heat, even of low redness produces a partial decomposition or dissociation of the silicate into alumina and silica. Both free alumina, and silica in the amorphous condition are shown by the experiments of Vicat to communicate hydraulic pro- perties to lime. This decomposition of the hydrated aluminous silicate by heat is analogous to that many years since observed by Fr^my for silicate of potash, whose solution at an elevated tem- perature is partially decomposed, with separation of pure crystal- line silica. In this connection should be noticed the observation of Kengott, that many mineral species acquire a strongly alkaline reaction after having been calcined. The natural pozzuolanas are nothing more than volcanic ash or argillaceous matter calcined by volcanic heat ; and it has long been known that similar pro- 106 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March ducts artificially prepared by calcination possessed, like the natural pozzuolanas, the power of rendering pure limes hydraulic ; but the true mode of their action, which has not hitherto been understood, i.s now rendered intelligible by this investigation of Fr^my. — (Compfess Rendus de I' Acad, des Sciences, Dec. 21, 1868.) In this connection may be mentioned the peculiar power of hardening under water presented by imperfectly calcined dolo- mites or magnesian limestones. By heating these to a temper- ature of 400°-500° centigrade the double carbonate is broken up ; and the magnesia, losing its carbonic acid, remains mixed with the carbonate of lime, but when moistened with water, is converted in a few hours into a crystalline hydrate, which gives to the mass a great degree of hardness. In like manner a condensed form of magnesia, such as is obtained by calcining at a gentle heat, the native anhydrous carbonate, gradually assumes, by the action of water, a great degi-ee of hardness. T. s. H. On the Decomposition op Granite by Water. (R. Hausmann, Jour, fur Prakt. Chem.) — The granite employed in these experiments was reduced to a powder so fine that it had a diameter of not more than 0.01 milUmeter. This digested for a week, with twenty-five times its weight of pure water, at the ordinary pressure and temperature, yielded an amount of soluble alkali equal for 100 parts to 0.03 or 0.04, and when the mixture was kept in continual agitation, to 0.05 parts. A longer digestion did not sen- sibly increase the amount of matter dissolved. The solvent power of water, saturated with carbonic acid, was found to be about twice that of pure water. Calculating from the surface exposed in these experiments, the author concludes that the rains of a year would remove about fifteen grammes of alkalies from a surface of 100 square metres of granite. t. s. h. OxYCHLORiD OP CopPER. — Hydrous oxychlorid of copper, to which the name of atacamite is given, is abundant in some regions, especially in Chili, where it is supposed to be formed by the action of sea-water on oxydizing copper pyrites. A late experiment of Prof. Church throws further light on the origin of this com- pound. He found that two grammes of the native blue hydrous carbonate of copper, azurite, after four years digestion in 200 cubic centimeters of a solution holding ten per cent of pure chlorid of sodium, had lost the whole of their carbonic acid, and become 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 107 converted into a green oxychlorid, allied in composition to atacor mite, carbonate of sodium being formed at the same time. (C/iem. News, Nov. '27, 1868.) For further observations on the artificial production of oxychlorid of copper, see Dana's Mineral, 794. The power of oxyd of lead to decompose chlorid of sodium with the formation of hydrate of soda and oxychlorid of lead, is familiar to chemists. T, s. ii. Chromic Iron. — Clouet has shown that when an admixture of protosulphate of iron and sesquichlorid of chromium, in the proper proportions, is precipitated by ammonia, and the resulting oxyds are fused with borax, the compound (Cr2 O3, Fe.^ O2) crystallizes in octohedrous, having the aspect, the hardness, density and chemical indifference to acids which belong to the native chromite, some varieties of which have the formula just given. T. s. H. Reduction of Nitrates and Sulphates in Certain Fer- mentations. — The reducing action of fermenting organic matters on these salts is well established ; in the case of nitrates, ammonia, and in the case of sulphates, sulphydric acid is formed. According to Bechamp this process is, in all cases, due to the intervention of minute organic germs of a peculiar species, to which he applies the name of Microzyma. These, under ordinary conditions, absorb from the air the oxygen which they require ; but if this source is excluded they take oxygen from the sulphates or nitrates present. These germs are found in the mud of towns, in which sulphid of iron forms, and also in common chalk. Hence, the addition of chalk to solutions of sugar or starch, with sulphate of lime, gives rise to reduction of the salt. t. s. h. Effects of Great Cold on Tin.— In a note to the French Academy of Sciences, Nov. 30, 1868, Mr. Fritschzeof St. Peters- burg, described the efiect of intense cold upon ingots of Banca tin weighing from 50 to 60 pounds. The metal had acquired a fibrous structure, and showed fissures like prismatic basalt, besides cavi- ties of considerable dimensions. In this connection Mr. Dumas recalled the brittleness of iron when exposed to great natural cold. T. s. H. Analysis of Graphite.— A known weight of graphite in powder is dried between 150° and 180° C, intimately mixed in 108 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March a glass tube with twenty times its weight of pure oxyd of lead, and then heated before the blow-pipe until complete fusion and the disap- pearance of all froth. The loss in weight corresponds to the car- bonic acid formed from the graphite, with the oxygen of the lith- arge. The pulverized graphite, may also be fused with pure nitrate of potash in a platinum crucible, and the carbonate formed determined in the usual manner. — {Glutl. Acad, of Vienna.) T. S. H. On Phosphorus in Iron. — The importance of manganese as an element in iron ores has long been known, and the experiments of Caron have shown that the addition of manganesian minerals to the charge of the blast furnace has, for eflPect, to reduce notably the amounts of sulphur and of silicon which pass into the pig metal. At the same time, however, it does not, in any way, diminish the proportion of phosphorus. This element generally exists in the ores as a phosphate of Hme, or in combination with alumina or oxyd of iron. These latter are generally decomposed by the addition of lime, which in its turn requires silica to give a liquid slag. The reaction of silica and carbon, at "a heat of fusion, on phosphate of lime, sets free the phosphorus, which unites directly with the metallic iron ; so that, while the slag is free from phospho- rus, the pig metal contains it in quantities often so large as to be very prejudicial. A solution of the problem of the treatment of phosphuretted ores would seem to require some flux capable of dissolving or ren- dering fusible the phosphate of lime without liberating its phos- phorus. Such a power is possessed by fluor-spar ; and the experi- ments of Caron show that while a mixture of phosphate of iron, lime and siUca, fused in a charcoal-lined crucible, gave a button of brittle metal highly charged with phosphorus, a mixture of phos- phate of iron, lime and fluor-spar, fused under similar conditions, was somewhat malleable, and contained only one -third as much phosphorus as the first assay. In operating in this way on natural and less phosphated ores, it was found that the substitution of fluor-spar for silica always produced a notable diminution in the amount of phosphorus in the metal ; but the improvement became less marked with ores holding small amount of phosphorus. Fluor- spar has also the eff'ect of dissolving alumina in the furnace. It is questionable how far this process could be applied in the metallurgy of iron, inasmuch as few ores are free from silica. 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 109 Moreover, the cost of fluor-spar in many localities would be such as to preclude its use. The experiments of Caron, however, deserve notice as a partially successful attempt to solve a very important problem in metallurgy. T. S. H. Natural InflaMxAiable Gases. — The recent investigations by numerous chemists of the composition of petroleum from various sources have shown it to consist in great part of homologues of marsh gas, hydride of methyl, C H^ (C=12, H=l), the most hydrogenated series of the hydro-carbons. In addition to these, small portions of benzene and its homologues, and of hydrocarbons of the ethylene or olefiant gas series have been detected in the petroleums of certain regions. Cahours and Pelouze have isolated from the products of the dis- tillation of Pennsylvania petroleum not less than thirteen homologues of marsh gas, having the general formula Cn H;i2+2, in which the value of 71 increased from 4 to 15, and the boiling point from 0° centigrade to 160°. The lower members of the series in which n equals 2 and 3, and which are gases at the ordinary temperature and pressure, were found by Ronalds in solution in crude Pennsylvania petroleum. The denser and less volatile liquids of petroleum, as well as the various solids included under the name of paraiSne, appear to belong to the same series. Inflammable gases are well known to issue from the palaeozoic rocks in many localities in the great Appalachian basin. Steiner (Amer. Jour. Science [2] xxxiv, 46,) examined some years since the gas from a well yielding salt water and petroleum, in the carboniferous rocks of Alleghany county, Pennsylvania, and found it to consist essentially of marsh gas, with a little carbonic acid, and traces of oxygen and nitrogen, but could detect no olefiant gas. My own examinations, many years since, of tlie inflammable gases from the saline springs of Varennes and Caledonia in Canada, which rise from Lower Silurian limestones, led to the same result. Some two years since M. Felix Foucou, a French engineer, visiting the oil regions of this country, was furnished with ex- hausted tubes, in which he was enabled to collect the gases from various localities. These gases were afterwards examined by Mr. Fouque in the laboratory of the College of France, and the results of the analyses, as well as the observations of Mr. Foucou, are contained in the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy of 110 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Sciences for November 23, 1868. The gases examined were from five localities. 1. The so-called Burning spring, just above the falls of Niagara, where an inflammable gas issues in considerable quantity from a spring of slightly sulphuretted water which rises from the strata of the Medina formation, here overlaid by a few feet of clay. This gas consists of marsh gas, with traces of carbonic acid, nitrogen and oxygen, the latter two being in all cases probably accidental impurities arising from imperfections in the apparatus used in collection. 2. Petrolia, Enniskillen, Ontario; the gas was collected from an intermittent oil-well, where petroleum had been reached five days previously, at a depth of 377 feet in the Hamilton formation. Its composition corresponded to a mixture of about equal parts of marsh gas, C H^ and hydrid of ethyl, C2 H^. 3. Fredonia, New York. This town on the shore of Lake Erie, with a population of 3,000 souls, has been for many years lighted with the g'ls which issues from a boring about eighty feet deep in the Genesee slates, which occur at the summit of the Hamilton formation. The gas is not accompanied by petroleum, and appears to be like the last, a mixture in nearly equal propor- tions of the hydrids of methyl and ethyl. 4. J ioneer Run, Venango county, Pennsylvania. This gas, from an oil-well about 600 feet deep in the sandstone of the Chemung formation, was more carburetted than the preceding and had nearly the composition of hydrid of propyl C3 Hg. A fractional analysis by means of alcohol, which dissolves more readily the more highly carburetted compounds of the series, showed however that this gas was a mixture, consisting in part of hydrid of butyl, Ci Hjo) besides a portion of hydrid of methyl, and the two intermediate bodies of the series. 5. Roger's Gulch, Wirtz county, West Virginia. The gas in this locality was from a flowing oil-well 320 feet deep in the carboni- ferous conglomerate, and consisted of hydride of methyl with an admixture of 15.86 per cent of carbonic acid gas. Careful examinations showed the absence from all of these gases of acetylene, C, Hj, of olefiant gas, C^ H^, and its homo- logues, as well as of oxyd of carbon and free hydrogen. T. S. H. Spontaneous Ignition. — " The spontaneous ignition of pyrotechnical compositions made with chlorate of potash is indeed 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS, 111 a very serious subject as regards the safety of both life and pro- perty. I know not if any reliable observations have been made in the matter, but the following ftcts were noted by myself some years ago, and may throw some light upon the probable origin of various terrible fires which have occurred on the premises of fire- work-makers in London. Mixtures of the three ingredients — nitrate of strontia (or barytes), sulphur, and chlorate of potash — if made up at once from freshly and strongly desiccated mate- rials, are certain to take fire spontaneously within a few hours, especially if placed in a rather damp situation. The action, which I twice had the patience to watch for and witness, begins with the evolution of an orange-coloured gas; afterwards a liquefaction is set up at several points in the mass; a hisi^ing noise and a more rapid disengagement of the gaseous matter comes on, and the composition takes fire. It is a curious thing that the addition of a small proportion of sulphuret of antimony at once prevents the occurrence of these phenomena ; whether charcoal has the same effect I am not quite sure. Moreover, if such compositions, being damp, are, in order to dry them, placed 00 near the source of heat, the same phenomena will take place even when the antimony is used in their composition. Also, compositions to produce a purple flame, if made with black oxide of copper, are almost sure, sooner or later, to take fire of them- selves at uncertain periods, whether kept in a damp or dry place. The carbonate should always be used in preference. — R. Trevor Clark." — Chemical News. New Chemical Toy. — "Pharoh's serpents" and "Vesuvian tea" have paved the way for the reception of a new Chinese wonder in the shape of "ferns growing out of burning paper.' This is a neat little experiment free from many of the disadvan- tages appertaining both to the "Devil's tears" and the lozenge- shaped crystals of bichromate of ammonia, which may chance to prove too inviting to children's tastes. The instructions direct us to crimp or fold the yellow papers backwards and forwards, so that when opened out they may be supported upright in a zigzag form. One of these slips is then placed upright on a plate, and ignited in two or three places along the upper edge, but without being allowed to blaze. It will burn slowly down with a red glow, diffusing an agreeable perfume, whilst the ash of the paper assumes the most fantastic arborescent shapes, together 112 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March with a green colour, which, to a lively imagination, may be suggpstive of tlie growth of ferns or lichens. We had no difficulty in imitating this effect by saturating thin cartridge paper, in the first instance, with an alcoholic solution of gum benzoin, and, when dry, applying an aqueous solution of the bichromate of ammonia. The decomposition of the latter substance by heat in contact with burning paper affords an explanation of the pheno- mena observed. — Chemical News. Meteorology. — We had fondly anticipated that one of the results of Confederation would be the establishment of a system by which the corps of observers now scattered (or to be scattered) throughout British North America would receive their instruc- tions from, and transmit their experiences to, some part of the Dominion. By this means a critical examination of them could readily be made, which would at once advance our material inter- ests and conduce to the advance of climatological science. Up to the present moment nothing has been done in this direction. This may be owing, in s.>me measure, to the incipient character of the new regime, and to the uncertainty prevailing with regard to Government aid. Still the Dominion Govermennt has allowed to the various observatories a small annual grant. Every lover of science must feel grateful that amid the din of politics, of com- merce, and of railway legislation, our public men have not for- gotten the encouragement due to science ; and we hope that ere another year has rolled by, our expressed wishes may be fully reaHzed. In the science of Meteorology unity in action is much needed in its modes, measures and purpose ; also in the co-operation of observers, whether individually or collectively, among the various nations. Up to the present time (if we except Admiral Fitzroy's efforts in this department of science) there has been little or no system in Meterology. It is essentially a science of observation, yet observers proceed upon no fixed plan. It is a science coeval with man himself, one which must have furnished the means of observation to the earliest races of mankind, and which has furnished matter for investigation and comparison through all time. Records of a very early date are preserved in our own language. The Bodleian library at Oxford (England) contains registrations of the weather for seven years, from Jan- uary, 1337, to January, 1344, recorded by Walter Merle. It is 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 113 believed that this is the earliest available record. The invention of the barometer in 1643, andof the thermometer in 1590, seemed destined to throw new lustre on the progress of the science. As- tronomy it is true has given to the world more lasting and fixed results, for the celestial orbs have undergone but little change ; while the nature of the ever-changing elements is still unfixed. At the present time every nation has its own measure of temper, ature, atmospheric pressure, rain, wind, &c. ; and above all, a point of the most vital importance, each has its own hour for observation. In this way the results obtained are vitiated, and the great aim of modern science, unity of purpose, is lost. Science is knowledge reduced to order, and the object in Meteorology is to obtain a correct knowledge of the cosmical laws which regulate and influence the universe. What influence have the sun, moon, and planets on the weather? — is a question which science must answer. If the sun and moon have so much influence upon the ponderable fluids in our seas, and great lakes, how much more may they not exert over such an elastic and easily moveable body as our atmos- phere ? Meteorology should embrace the study of such ideas as these, our united eftbrts should tend towards their solution, from which we may hope to gain practical advantage. At all events, if there are impediments to final results, let such be the means by which they will be detected and exposed. Observations made either by individuals, colleges, observatories, or nations, must be brought together into a limited space of time. They must each be reduced to one common standard before they can serve the general purposes of science. Self registering instru- ments are the best and most suitable for this object. By means of them the science itself is at once traced and left indelible on the register. They form at the same time a natural measurement of time, space, and amount ; while nothing short of a large area of country will furnish the necessary means and extent of survey. Let our observations, if possible extend beyond the Kocky moun. tains, and this is a matter of much consequence. This chain separates North America, as it were, into two portions. It in- fluences the climate of British America in no small degree, and seems to produce the ebb and flow of the great atmospheric sea, and to absorb our heat and moisture. At least our instruments at this distant point appear to indicate this. Another important source of inquiry, especially in reference to Yol. I. H No. 1. 114 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll storms, is into the history of that " river in the sea" the Gulf stream, — and its reservoir, the Gulf of Mexico. Sailors have been active in the daily notices of occurrences in connection with this subject, but as yet little has been done by individual observers on land in carrying out that unity of purpose so necessary in the pursuit of meteorological science. Much may still be said in reference to this subject, but immediate action is required. Let us, of the Dominion, no longer procrastinate, a central station should be at once estab- lished, to which all observations may be referred ; if Montreal, then let a simultaneous system be at once adopted as to time, measure, and amount. Our Telegraph lines have been always ready to aid in the enterprise, the press has also offered its aid. If, for this Dominion, the pressure of the atmosphere, temperature, winds, etc., could be observed at distinct and fixed intervals of time and space, and their connection with other atmospherical pheno- mena alike be transmitted to this central point for reduction and examination, we should, as a nation newly issued as it were into, life, be forming one link in that important chain, which must ere long encircle the whole earth. With the new appliances of science and art in our sub marine telegraph, our storm signals and weather-casts, we should endeavor to unravel the hidden mysteries of those laws which meteorological science has not yet been able to reveal from want of unity of purpose. If by these united efforts and by these investigations we can predict the ebb and flow of our atmosphere as we can now the ebb and flow of the tide, we should then be in a position to fore, tell with a great amount of certainty any of those changes that have so direct a bearing on our maritime and agricultural pursuits. We could then at once establish at our principal seaports and head-lands those beacons which might warn the sea-faring man of his impending danger and prevent by timely notice that loss of life and property which every year it is our misfortune to witness and which we feel sure so soon as science is properly and duly applied, may be averted. The neglect of the study of Meteorology in the Universities of Great Britain is much to be regretted. Its assiduous study in such countries as the United States, Austria, France, Russia, Norway and the Netherlands stand out in striking contrast. In the United States alone we have 800 observers, in Austria 118, and in Switzerland 83. There are now 1,500 rain-gauges in 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 115 England employed to ascertain the amount of the rainfall, and we can boast that in British North America the science of Meteorology is taught in our Colleges and Grammar Schools. Observatories have been established through the generosity of our Government at those points of great importance, Halifax and St. Johns, N. B. All that we now require is unity of purpose so as to bring our united efforts to a useful end. We propose to offer suggestions in reference to the organization of some plan of action in a future number. C. S. Meteorological Report for the Tear 1868. — The following summary embraces the principal meteorological phe- nomena for the past year (1868) condensed from the records of the Montreal Observatory. The geographical co-ordinates being latitude 45° 31' North, longitude, 4h. 54m. 11 sec. west of Greenwich; the cisterns of the barometers are 182 feet above mean sea level. The readings have all been corrected from instrumental errors, and the readings of the Barometer have been also corrected for temperature (32 ° F.) Atmospheric Pressure. — The highest reading of the year occurred at 7 A.M. on the morning of the 30th of October, and indicated 30.400 inches. The lowest reading during the year was at 5 A.M. on the 7th day of December, and indicated 28.687 inches, shewing an annual range of 1.713 inches. The yearly mean was 29.537 inches. Below is a table for each month, shewing the highest and lowest readings : — January. Feb. March. April. May. June. Highest Inches. 30.14(5 29.149 Inches. 30.248 29.033 Inches. 30. 347 29.250 Inches. 30.034 28.867 Inches. 29.999 29.247 Inches. 29.998 29.247 Lowest July. August. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Highest Inches. 29.902 29.446 Inches. 30.061 29.271 Inches. 30.100 29.362 Inches. 30.400 29.250 Inches, 30.249 29.161 Inches. 30.212 28.687 116 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Temperature of the Air F ° . — The highest reading of the Thermometer during the year was on the 13th July and was 98-7; the lowest reading was on the 11th of February and was 22-4 degrees (below zero.) The mean temperature for the year was 42-45. This agrees exactly with the observations on the mean annual temperature made by the late Hon. Mr. Justice McCord, also with my own, but it is nearly 2 ° degrees lower than the mean annual temperature furnished from observations of the late Dr. A. Hall. The yearly range or climatic difference for the year was 121-1 degrees. The extreme heat of July was marked by a mean temperature of 76 ° which exceed by 5 ° degrees the Isothermal for Montreal, deduced from observations continued during a long series of years, and there were during the month ^(oo(its^i«c^ hot terms, including the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th days, when the mean temperature was 82-3, 84-7, 84-4, and 83-1 respectively. The Thermometer never indicated less than 72-7 during the 24 hours. The seco?ifZ hot term includes the 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th days; their respective means being 84-0, 87-6, 87-1, 87-9 and 85-5, and the temperature during this term was never below 71.4 during the 24 hours. Below is a table shewing the months' highest and lowest read- ings, also the monthly means, together with the amount of rain and snow in each month : — Months. Meau Tem- perature in F. = Highest Tempera- ture. Lowest Tempera- ture. Rain, depth in inches. Snow, depth in inches. January.. February' . March April .... May June July .... August- . . September October. . . Noveuibor. December. 10 = 80 9 = 49 ;n®90 38 = 95 53 = 89 66 = 40 76 = 00 69 = 94 57 = 94 44 = 82 33 = 30 16 = 00 37 = 2 33 = 1 67 = 68 = 2 82 = 3 95 = 7 98 = 7 87 = 9 80 = 7 69 = 1 53 = 32 = 1 1 429 0.241 3.462 0.486 2.124 2.362 3.494 0.794 4.473 12.63 22.20 5.34 14.93 4.92 17.28 27.96 1869.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 117 The following table shews : — Mean temperature of the Quarters, with the amount of Rain and Snow, in inches, for the year ending 1868. Months. Tempera- ture. Eain Snow. 10099 10 = 80 9=49 0.518 26.16 Winter } January ( FebiTiary .... 12.64 22 r,0 Mean. ]0°42 Amouuts. 0.518 61.00 C March 31=90 38 = 95 .^>3 = 89 1.429 0.241 3 462 5 34 Spring < April 14.93 ( May .... - Mean. 41 = 58 Amounts. 5.132 20.24 i June Summer < July ( August m = 40 76 = 00 69 = 94 0.486 2 124 2.462 Mean. 70=78 Amounts. 5.972 C September Autumn < October ... . 57 = 94 44 = 83 33 = 30 3.494 794 4.473 4.92 ( November 17 28 ■ Moan. 45 = 45 Amounts. 8.761 22.10 Rain and Snow. — The amount of rain which fell was very much below the average, when compared with previous years. In the month of July there were 16 days on which no rain what- ever fell. Rain fell on 31 days during the year, and amounted to 18.865 inches on the surftice. Very few observations of a reliable kind on the rain and snow fall have been recorded for Montreal, but the few to which we have had access would give the mean annual amount of rain somewhat above 36 inches, or about double the quantity which fell during the past year (1868.) This unusual dryness was also felt in Grreat -Britain and on the continent of Europe. Snow fell on 61 days, amounting to 105.27 inches on the sur- face. The first snow of Autumn fell on the 17th of October. The first frost of Autumn occurred on the 17th of September, and winter fairly set in on the 7th of December. The first steamer arrived in the port of Montreal on the 17th of April. Winds. — The most prevalent winds during the year were the West and W.S.W. The next in frequency were the N.E. and N.E. by E. The least frequent wind was the East. There were 177 nights clear at 9 P.M., suitable for astronomi- cal observations ; this is somewhat above the usual average. The year was not distinguished by any remarkable displays of the Aurora Borealis, although these phenomena were visible on 118 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March several nights during each month. Several slight shocks of earth- quakes were felt both at Montreal and in its immediate vicinity. The grand meteoric display was well seen from llh. 35m. P.M. on the 13th November, to 3h. 45m., A.M., of the 14th, and was most profuse and brilliant. MISCELLANEOUS. Illumination of Microscopic Objects. — Notwithstanding the many ingenious methods of microscopists for the illumination of the minute objects they study, none of them seem hitherto to have been based on thoroughly artistic, if, indeed, even on sufficiently correct principles. The new hemispherical condenser, invented by the Rev. J. B. Reade, is certainly, in one point of view, the most correct in principle, and practically the best as far as the proper delineation of objects is concerned. Of its value in bringing out fine lines and markings on the scales of Podura angulatum and various other test objects a single inspection would be sufficient for the most obdurate disbeliever in its efficacy. The principle is a modification of semi-circular illumination, — or illumination from one side only, as artists adopt in their pictures. An ordinary achromatic condenser throws the light all round the object, and, consequently, as each half of the circle of illumina- tion throws shadows from any prominences or thicknesses of the object in opposite directions, so there are also illuminations of the shadows from both sides of the circle of light, and the defini- tion of the object, which is only brought out by the depth of the shadows, must be weakened. Mr. Reade invented his condenser, as many other things have been invented, by an accident. He placed a lamp directly in front of his object, and another lamp at right angles to it at the side. The shadows were consequently artistically thrown upon the object, and he found the definition of it wonderfully increased. From this it occurred to him that by using a hemisphere of glass and covering the top or flat sur- face with two oversliding diaphragms, pierced with certain orifi- ces, he could throw one ray of light longitudinally and another at right angles horizontally over his object ; and that by means of the overcrossing of the intermediate slits of the diaphragms he 1869.] MISCELLANEOUS. 119 could throw an intermediate ray at any angle he desired. This in principle, is a semi-circular illumination, but improved by shutting out all but necessary light, and consequently intensifying the shadows ; so much so that, with one of the admirable half- inch object-glas'^es now manufactured by Mr. Andrew Ross, re- sults are conspicuously obtained, which before were but obscurely or were quite unattainable by quarter-inch and even one-eighth- inch glasses. Mr. Mackie has suggested that the principle should be applied to the illumination of opaque objects, the reflected light from the Lieberkuhns being now likewise dispersed over the shadows of the object by the circular radiation from tlieir brightly polished surfaces and no artistic effects are produced, as would be the case if the light were thrown down from one side of the Lieberkuhn only. The " Naturalists Canadien." — We have received the first number of this periodical, and hail with no small pleasure its advent. It is under the direction of the Abb6 Provencher, Cur6 of Portneuf ; and is printed in our sister city of Quebec. It con- tains twenty-four pages of printed matter ; and we fully endorse the views of the author's prospectus, " that while furnishing to the amateur the medium of the study of Natural History, it will, at the same time, be the means of disseminating all new dis- coveries, and form the means by which the public will participate in these investigations." There is also a page devoted to the Meteorology of Portneuf, which forms a new and important point of observation. We hope that investigations will ere long be extended to other points on the Lower St. Lawrence, and we sincerely wish the author that success which his energy and devotion to the science so richly deserves. c. s. Social and Sanitary Science. — One of the greatest social problems in all civilized nations is, how to return to the earth what is taken from it ; or, how to collect and return to the soil, in a way profitable for cultivation, the refuse of man and animals which now, under favorable circumstances, runs to waste, and, under ordinary circumstances, remains to breed disease. The simplest of the modes yet adopted is now coming into extensive use in England, viz., " Moule's Earth Closets." It is simply a convenient application of the old principle, that earth is 120 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March the best absorbent of foetid matter. The patent consists in an easy mode of dropping dry earth on excreta and carrying it off, charged with plaut-food, in pans. It is now being tried, with excellent results, in the Kingston Penitentiary and other public institutions. How far it can be adapted to the ordiniiry require- mentsof city or of country life, during our severe winters, remains to be seen. All who have the opportunity will do well to try experi- ments in it, and communicate their results to the editor of this department, who is also the Honorary Secretary of the Montreal Sanitary Association. The experiment in the English camp during the last unusually hot summer was marvellously satis- factory ; all previous experiments, even with good closets and drains, hadng more or less failed. The edls of the old system, even with a fiiir amount of sewering, and a large average of closets, are terribly apparent in the con- tinued, and even increased, mortality of Montreal, in spite of increased vigilance on the part of the sanitary police. The death- rate for 1868 amounts to within a fraction of forty per thousand, or one in every twenty-five. The details will be discussed in the ensuing number. p. P. c. Physiological. — At a recent meeting of the Royal Society a paper was read by Mr. W. S. Savory, "On the Structure of the Red Blood Corpuscle of Oviparous Vertebrata," which goes far to overturn the conclusions accepted and held by many physiologists. They have maintained that between the red blood corpuscle of mammalia and that of other vertebrate classes a fundamental distinction existed; the distinction being a nucleus in the red corpuscle of the oviparous vertebrata. Mr. Savory shows, according to the Athenanim, that this nucleus has no existence, that the appciu-ance which has been mistaken for a nucleus is merely a change which the blood undergoes after death, and by being kept too long before it is put under the microscope for examination. And he describes a method by which the formation of the so-called nuclei can be observed and their fictitious character detected. Assuming that tliis view is well founded, it follows, to quote Mr. Savory's words, " that the red corpuscle of all vetrebrata is in its natural state structureless." THE CANADIAN NATURALIST AND MODERN IDEAS OF DERIVATION. Address of Principal Dawson, as President of the Natural History Society of Montreal. Read at the Annual Meeting, May 18th, 1869. The sphere of tliis Society as a modest collector and preserver of local facts in Natural History, does notpreclude its glancing at the more difficult and abstruse questions which agitate Naturalists elsewhere ; and perhaps no place is more fitting for this than tlie annual address of the President. I propose, therefore, on the present occasion, to direct your attention to the present state of those exciting questions agitated in our day by Geologists, Zoologists and Botanists, as to the origin of Species and Genera, and the law of their creation. Time was when Naturalists were content to take nature as they found it, without any over curious inquiries as to the origin of its several parts, or the changes of which they might be sus- ceptible in time. Geology first removed this pleasant state of repose, by showing that all our present species had a beginning, and were preceded by others, and these again by others. Geologists were, however, too much occupied with the facts of their science to speculate on the ultimate causes of the appearance and disappearance of species, and it remained for Zoologists and Botanists, or as some prefer to call themselves. Biologists, to construct hypotheses or theories to account for the ascertained fact that successive dynasties of species have succeeded each Vol. IV. I No. 2. 122 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June other in time. In our day, Darwin has given to such speculations a form and coherency which they did not before possess, by his doctrine of Natural Selection ; and theories of derivation and transformation are perhaps more popular than at any previous time, and are impressing themselves legibly on the practical every day work of science. In these circumstances it becomes necessary to watch the phases of opinion on this subject,|to examine the various doctrines propounded, and to ascertain what progress they are making, if any, toward the goal of truth. A very important contribution to this work has recently been made by Professor Owen in the concluding chapter of his great book on Physiology, just completed ; and I shall take this as the basis of some remarks on the present state of the question of derivation. Prof. Owen, availing himself of the privileges of a father in Science, goes back to 1830 in reviewing the history of doctrines of derivation, and shows that in his student days the question of the origin of species was agitated by the great Cuvier and his contemporary, GeoflFroy St. Hilaire, and that both of these great masters of Natural Science had doubts as to the permanency of species in geological time, though neither had before him enough of biological evidence to establish this as a fact, or to frame any certain theory as to the relation of modern to extinct species ; and Cuvier, at least, saw evidence against derivation in the apparent want of connecting links between fossil and recent species. Owen endeavours to arrange the questions raised in 1830 under several heads, and to state each as then agitated, and to " post it up," so to speak, to the present period — -his evident intention being to show that the views of Darwin and other recent advocates of theories of derivation are by no means so original as they are supposed to be. The first great question agitated by the French naturalists forty years ago is that grand one — Is there unity of plan or final purpose in living creatures ? Are the homologies or resemblances of structure in organized beings merely parts of the general plan, or do they point to genetic or other relations of derivation ? Are the beautiful adaptations of organs to functions, and of organisms to places in nature, evidences of deliberate purpose working out its ends by means, or have the external necessities given form to the organs ? On this question Cuvier, in his assertion of teleology, evidently took the broader and more 1869.] DAWSON — IDEAS OF DERIVATION, 123 philosophical view, that which commends itself to the grander and higher style of mind ; but neither he nor his opponent were in a position to see fully the bearings of the question. Owen himself, though largely in advance of most other writers of this time, is not free from misconceptions. He clearly sees, with all the more profound thinkers among naturalists, that whichever view we adopt, the problem can be solved only on the hypothesis of a " predetermining intelligent "Will." Without this, nature is only a riddle without a solution — man himself a contradiction and impossibility. But, admitting this, are those resemblances which we call homologies, those adaptations which we call analogies, results of direct creative acts or of the operation of secondary causes? If the former, they are ultimate facts, referable directly to will ; if the latter, we may study their more immediate causes, and the laws under which these operate. Cuvier and many of his most illustrious disciples have been content to adopt the former alternative. Owen declares that in this he has been led to differ from his great master. The reasons which he gives under this head are, it must be confessed, feeble. He found it necessary to assume an " archetype " or ideal type in explaining the vertebrate skeleton ; but this would have been equally suitable under the hypothesis of direct creation or that of secondary causes. He saw in the recurrence of similar segments in a vertebral column and other cases of repetition of similar parts, something analogous to the repetition of similar crystals, as the result of " polarizing force in the growth of an inorganic body." But there is scarcely more philosophy in this than there is in the process by which a savage, ignorant of manufacturing processes, might explain, as the result of some unknown process of crystallization, the recurrence of forms in the pattern of a piece of calico or in the beads of a necklace. Still we are willing to allow due value even to the impressions made upon the minds of naturalists by such facts, and to go on to the next question of the series. Before doing so, however, we must take exception to one expression of the great English naturalist, which, in various forms, recurs in several places. He calls the theory of derivation a principle " more especially antagonistic to the theological idea" of creation. Now, if by the theological idea he means that promulgated in the first chapter of Genesis, he should explain wherein the antagonism consists. The object of the writer in is obviously to illustrate and enforce the existence and 124 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June attributes of the Supreme Intelligent Will as opposed to Polytheism, Pantheism and Atheism, and the fact of an orderly and serial origin of things. But if he says that animals were made " according to their kinds," has any modern naturalist a right to hold that the kinds or species of Genesis are equivalent to those of any school of zoologists in our day ? Further, all who profess to be acquainted with this part of theology should know that the word " create " is applied in Genesis only to the first animals, and to man considered as an intelligent and moral agent. The other animals and all plants are said to have been " made," " formed," " brought forth," implying that the writer had before his mind the idea of a primary and secondary kind of origin of organized beings. I endeavoured many years ago, in a work well known to members of this Society, and published before Darwin's Origin of Species, to illustrate this old " theological idea." Since naturalists will bring up such subjects, I may be excused for reminding them that if they should come to believe, on zoological and geological grounds, that some of the entities which we call species have been produced by a method which may be properly termed creation, and others by secondary processes, they may possibly find themselves to be in perfect harmony with the oldest and most authoritative theological ideas on the subject. The second great question as to Derivation is that which relates to the succession of species in Geological time. Was this broken or uninterrupted? Did new species die out and were old ones created in their room, or were the new ones derived by some secondary process from those which preceded them ? This question can only be finally settled by inductive investigation, and unfortunately our knowledge of extinct animals and plants is still too imperfect to give us the necessary accumulation of facts. We can only inquire as to a few cases a little better known to us than others. One curious feature of the inquiry is that it seems easier to show relationships between large groups of animals than between particular species. The reasons of this will appear farther on. Prof. Huxley, with his usual dexterity in presenting these problems to the popular comprehension, has recently taken advantage of this in tracing the links of connection between birds and reptiles.* By a series of cleverly arranged transitions, he has succeeded in constructing such a series as no doubt sufficed to ♦ Royal lustitiitioii Lecture on Animals intermediate between Birds and Reptiles. 1869.] DAWSON — IDEAS OF DERIVATION. 125 convince many of his auditors that the gigantic and grotesque Iguanodons of the Mesozoic rocks might have been the pro- genitors, if not of wrens and titmice, at least of ostriches and cormorants. Yet he could not have phiced together any two members of the supposed series without convincing any naturalist that an enormous gap had to be filled between them. Prof. Owen, writing to naturalists, does not attempt this sort of intellectual sleight of hand, but presents, as a case in point, the supposed progenitors of the liorse. That useful quadruped was preceded in the tertiary period (Miocene and Pliocene) by a horse-like animal, the Hipparion, which, among other things, differed from its modern representative in having its splint bones represented by two side toes, a conformation supposed to adapt it to locomotion on soft and swampy ground. The Hipparion was preceded in the earlier tertiary (Eocene) by the Palasotherium, in which the side toes were still further developed so as to touch the ground, giving the foot a tridactyle character. These relations induce Owen to believe that these forms may be an actual genetic series, the species of Palgeotherium passing through a succession of changes into the modern horse. Perhaps this case, as put by Prof. Owen, affords as fair an example as we can obtain of the bearing of a derivative hypothesis. The three genera in question are closely allied. They succeed each other regularly in Geological time. The horse shows in his splint bones rudiments of organs, which, serving little apparent purpose in him, were more fully developed and of manifest use in his predecessors. Modern horses have occasionally shown a tendency to develop the side toes, as if returning to the primitive type. Taking this as a fair example of derivation, and admitting, I'or the sake of argument, its probability, let us consider shortly some of the questions that may be raised with regard to it. These are principally two. 1. What limits, if any, must necessarily be set to such an hypothesis, and what relations does it bear to the origin of life ut first and to the succession of animals in Geological time ? 2. What causes may be supposed to have led to such deri- vation ? Under the first head, we have to enquire as to the limits set to derivation by the structure of organic beings themselves, and by the physical conditions and changes which may affect them. J[t will be convenient to consider these together. 126 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Supposing that Palgeotheriunij Hipparion and Equus arc links in a chain extending from the Eocene Tertiary to the present time, can we suppose that by tracing the same series further back it might include any Mammjil. We must answer decidedly not, for if the whole time from the Eocene to the present has been required to produce the comparatively small change required from Palaeotherium to horse, that in other cases would carry us back to the iMesozoic period, long before we have any evidence of the existence of " placental mammals." In other words, the Tertiary and Modern Periods will give us time enough only to effect changes of Mammals within the order Pachydermata, and perhaps in only one section of that order. The other orders must therefore constitute separate series, and these series must have been advancing abreast of each other. Had each series a separate origin, or is there any Mammalian stock in the Mesozoic from which, at the beginning of the Tertiary, these several lines of types hiay have diverged ? Here our information fails. We know only a few small Mar- supial Mammals in the Mesozoic. On our hypothesis it is possible that these may have been the progenitors of the more varied and advanced Marsupials of the Tertiary and Modern periods, but scarcely of the placental Mammals of the Eocene. There may have been placental Mammals, unknown to us, in the Mesozoic, which may constitute the required stock. The reptiles of the Mesozoic utterly fail to give us the necessary links. If they were changing into anything it was into birds, not into Mammals. Again, the time in which the horse and its supposed progenitors have lived is one of continuous, unbroken succession of species. More especially in the later Tertiary there seems the best evidence of gradual extinction and introduction of species, without any very wide-spread and wholesale destruction, and this not- withstanding the intervention of that period of cold and of submergence of land in the Northern hemisphere, which has given rise to all the much-agit itcd glacial theories of our time. Can we affirm that such piecemeal work has continued throughout Geological time? At this point opens the battle between the 'Jatastrophists and Uniformitarians in lleology, a battle which I am not about to fight over again here. I have ekewhcre stated reasons for the belief that neither view can be maintained without the other, and that Geological time has consisted of 1869.] DAWSON — IDEAS OF DERIVATION. 127 alternations of long periods of physical repose and slow subsidence in which our more important fossiliferous formations have been deposited, with others of physical disturbance and elevation, with extinction of species. Dana has well shown how completely this view is established by the series of Geological formations as seen on the broad area of the American continent. Now the question arises, how would the law of derivation operate in these two diiFerent states of our planet ? Let us suppose a state of things in which far more forms were being destroyed than were reproduced — another in which introduction of species was more rapid than extinction. In the latter case we may suppose an exuberance of new species to have been produced. In the former there would be a great clearance of these, and perhaps only a few types left to begin new series. Do we now live in one of the periods of diminution or of increase? Perhaps in the former, since there seems to have been, in the case of the Mammalia of the Post-pliocene, an enormous amount of extinction of the grandest forms of life, apparently without their replacement by new forms. If so, how for can we judge from our own time of those which preceded it? They may have been far more fertile in new forms, or perhaps farther iu excess in the work of extinction. The question is further complicated with that which asks if these differences arise from merely physical agencit'S acting on organic beings from without, or is there in the organic world itself some grand law of cyles independent of external influences ? The answers to such questions are being slowly and laboriously worked out by Geologists and Naturalists, and all the more slowly that so many inevitable errors occur as to the specific or varietal value of fossils and the relative importance of Geological facts, while the great gaps in the monumental history are only little by little being tilled up. Nothing can more forcibly illustrate the amount of work remaining to be done toward the settlement of these questions than a glance at the elaborate and most valuable " Thesaurus Silur-cus" of Dr. Bigsby, recording, as it does, nearly 9,000 species of animals already found in the Silurian rocks. The rapid increase in the number of known species shows that we know as yet but a fraction of this ancient fauna, while the facts relating to introduction, extinction, geographical distribution and distribution in time, show that we are still a very long way 128 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June from auy definite conclusions as to the general law of succession and its relations to physical changes. The application of these questions to the animals referred to by Owen, will serve farther to shew their significance as to limi- tations of derivation. Pictet catalogues eleven species of Eocene Paloeotheria. Without inquiry as to the origin of these, let us confine ourselves to their progress. Under tl e hypothesis of derivation, each of these had capacities for improvement, probably all leading to that line of change ending in the production of the horse. If so, then each of our Palaeotheria, passing through intermediate changes, may be the predecessor of some of the equine animals of the Post-pliocene and Modern periods. But if, as seems probable, the time intervening between the Eocene and the Modern was unfavourable to the multiplication of such species, then several may have perished utterly in the process, and all might have perished. Supposing, on the contrary, the time to have been favourable to the increase of such creatures, we might have had hundreds of species of equine animals instead of the small number extant at present. Again, what possibilities of change remain in the horse ? Can he be supposed capable of going on still f\irther in the direction of his progress from Palseotherium, or has he attained a point at which further change is impossible ? Will he then, in process of time, wheel round in his orbit and return to the point from which he set out ? Or will he continue unchanged until he becomes extinct? Or can he at a certain point diverge into a new series of changes ? We do not know any Palaeotherium betore the Eocene. Is it not possible that they may have originated in some way different from that slow change by which they are supposed to have been transmuted into horses, and that in their first origin they were more plastic than after many changes had happened to them ? May it not be that the origin of forms or types is after all something different from derivative changes, and that new forms are at first plastic, afterwards comparatively fixed — at first fertile in derivative species, and afterward comparatively barren. Certainly, unless something of this kind is the case, we fail to find in the Modern world a sufficient number of re- presentatives of the Palaeotheria, Anoplotheria, Lophiodons, Elephants and Mastodons of the tertiary. On the other hand, it is scarcely possible to find a sufficient starting point in the 18G9.] DAWSON — IDEAS OF DERIVATION. 129 Eocene for the multitude of Ruminants and Carnivores and Quadrumana of the Modern time. But it may be said, and truly, that these higher forms of life put the doctrine of derivation to the severest test. If we take marine invertebrata, we may trace analogues of these back into the earliest geological periods, and as the species are very numerous, and their structures more simple, it is easier to imagine a continuous derivation with respect to them. Still, even here such facts as the v:ist multiplication of species of Trilobites, Ammonites, Belemnites, and Ganoid Fishes, at different periods of Geological time, and their disappearance without modified successors, point to limitations of any law of derivation that maybe suggested. To sum up where all is so uncertain is not easy ; but we may, I think, affirm that if existing animals are derivative as modified descendants of others — (1) They belong to a vast number of lines of modification which would require to be traced backward separately. (2) That many of these lines end abruptly in com- paratively recent periods, perhaps in consequence of our defective information, perhaps because of some other law of creation. (3) That in some periods a series must suddenly bud forth into many ramifications, and in others contract to a few representations or be altogether dropped. (4) That the beginning of such series may take place in a different manner from derivation, and that the law of new series is probably different from that of those of longer derivation. (5) That it is absurd to suppose that any modern animal has originated from any now contemporary with it (e.g., man from the gorilla or bears from seals), since all these existing species must belong to series to be traced backward through species now extinct, and possibly unknown to us. (6) That while it is obvious that such derivation must be related to contemporary physical changes, our views of the nature of that relation must depend on those which we take of the causes of derivation itself Before proceeding farther we may remove another of the " theological" misconceptions under which Owen and some other writers on this subject seem to labour. They think that the " Biblical flood" interposes some difficulties in the way of their speculations as to the origin of species. They may readily be relieved from all embarrassment on this subject. The language of the Noachian record in Genesis implies that the Deluge was universal only in so far as man was concerned. The catalogue of 130 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June animals taken into the Ark, five times repeated, and that of anim^ils destroyed, twice given, show that only a very limited number of species were in the Ark, and that of the rest some certainly survived — others may have perished. Farther, the catastrophe does not require us to suppose either that coral polypes and other marine animals were overwhelmed with fresh water or under an abyssal depth of ocean, for the submergence of the dry land, or of a portion of it, by the " breaking up of the fountains of the great deep," docs not imply a deepening of the ocean, but possibly to some small extent a shallowing of it. If the Royal Institution, of London, which has recently done so much in its courses of lectures to ventilate new and sometimes questionable scientific hypotheses, would employ some one to give a few exegetical lectures on the earlier chapters of Grenesis, without entering into any disputed questions of criticism, but merely explaining the literal meaning of the terms of the record, it would confer an inestimable benefit on those Naturalists who seem to have derived their notions of the Biblical Creation and Deluge from the picture books and toy Noah's Arks of their childhood, with the comments of their nursery-maids thereon. It still remains to us to inquire whether the doctrine of derivation can throw any light on the origin of life at first. Nothing in the doctrine of derivation itself necessitates the belief that change has always been in the direction of improvement or of increased complexity ; but the Geological history of the earth and the succession of fossils lead to the belief that the general tendency of creation has been from more generalized to more specialized forms, and from simpler to more complex organisms. Still, it is evident that this general doctrine of improvement is to be held with some limitations of detail. For example, the very lowest forms of life have continued down to the present, and some of them — for instance, the sponges and Foraminifera — have apparently attained to their greatest extension in number of species in comparatively late periods. Further, every new form when first introduced appears to be at its maximum in point of development ; or, if not so, it rapidly attains to this, and again deteriorates when being supplanted by other and newer forms. Numerous examples of this will occur to every Geologist. Admitting, however, that development has in some cases been indefinitely postponed, and that in others it has .advanced by successive waves, each retreating before the advance of the next, 1869.] DAWSON — IDEAS OP DERIVATION. 131 still, we may hold that it would be f;iir to assume a gradual progress from lower to higher forms. Assuming this, and that the lower have preceded the higher, wc may limit our inquiry as to the origin of life to the lowest forms, and ask what is involved in the question of their origin. Now, it is easy to affirm that the lowest animals and the lowest plants are but Protoplasm, which is only another name for the chemical compound Albumen, and that if we can conceive this to originate from the inorganic union of its elements, we shall have a low form of life from which we can deduce all the higher forms of vital action. In making such affirmation we must take for granted several things, none of which we can yet prove : — (1) That vital force is merely a modification of some of the forces acting in unorganized matter ; (2) That such force can be spontaneously originated from other forces without the previous existence of organization ; (3) That being originated, it has the power to form Albumen and other organic .compounds. Or, if we prefer another alternative, we may take, instead of the last statement,: — (1) That Albuminous matter can be produced by the union of its chemical elements without life or organization ; (2) That being so produced it can develop vital forces and organization, including such phenomena as sensation, volition, reproduction, &c. To believe either of these doctrines in the present state of science is simply an act of faith, not of that kind which is based on testimony or evidence, however slight, but of that unreasoning kind which we usually stigmatize as mere credulity and superstition. It will not help us here to say that vegetable and animal infusions, destitute of germs, will produce a " mucous layer " or " proligerous pellicle " from which organisms may arise, for in the first place such infusion itself contains organic matter, and, as Tyndall has lately shown incidentally in his experiments with the electric light, we have to operate with air and water and vessels, which it is wholly impossible by any chemical or mechanical process to free completely from the smaller kinds of germinal matter. It is rather discouraging thus to find that, on the philosophy of derivation, as our faith advances the demands upon it increase, until, from belief in the derivation of Horses from Hipparia, we are finally obliged to believe that life with all that it involves is nothing but a peculiar manifestation of dead inorganic forces. In order that, if possible, we may relieve ourselves from this burden, let us now turn to our second inquiry, and consider the 132 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June causes which are alleged to produce the transmutation of species. Leaving out of the account many fanciful and untenable hypotheses, both ancient and modern, we may notice : — (1) The Lamarckian theory of Appetency ; (2) The Darwinian theory of Natural Selection ; (3) The Owenian doctrine of " Innate tendency to deviate from parental type;" (4) The doctrine of arrested or advanced embryonic development ; — with the view of ascertaining how far these several hypotheses may be employed to account for observed facts. (1.) The Lamarckian theory is essentially that of effort in certain directions giving power in those directions, and conse- quently altering organs. That it has a real basis in nature no one can doubt who has observed the effect of use and effort in determining the development of organs. That it can produce only varietal forms and not species, and that it is practically very limited in its operation, are facts equally patent. It is a mis- take, however, to suppose that Lamarck confined himself to the effect of will in producing change. He considered also the effect of external circumstances, and of habits induced by such circumstances, in which respect his theory differed less than is generally supposed from that of Mr. Darwin. The main difference is, that Lamarck supposed auimals to be acted on by an attractive influence from before, Darwin by a propelling influence from behind. In this respect Lamarck's hypothesis is the more philosophical, when regarded as means of real progress ; but it is less applicable to the lower animals and to plants than to animals of high grade. (2.) The most popular theory of derivation in the present day is undoubtedly that of Darwin. This view is, essentially, that all organized beings are engaged in a struggle for existence ; that in this struggle certain varieties arise, which, being more suited to the conditions, prosper and multiply more than others ; that this amounts to a " Natural Selection " similar in kind to the artificial selection of breeders of stock ; that members of the same species, isolated from each other and subjected to struggles of different kinds, will in process of time become specifically distinct. The difliculties of Darwinism are many. The following may be stated as fatal to it in its capacity of a sole mode of accounting for derivation : — (1) Conditions which involve a struggle for existence are found by experience to result in deterioration and final extinction rather than improvement, and are directly op- 1869.] DAWSON— IDEAS OP DERIVATION. 133 posite to those employed by breeders for their purposes. (2) Even if we include, along with the struggle for existence, the action of all conditions, favourable and unfavourable, tending to change, we fail to find any evidence of this other than the formation of varieties and races. True species, no longer capable of interbreeding, have not been observed to be produced. (3) Though it is conceivable that species may have been produced during the lapse of time, yet even this is rendered improbable by the enormously long periods which Mr. Darwin himself admits to be necessary, and which seem to overgo the possibility of the existence of the creatures in question as far back in geological time as the theory demands. (3.) Owen desires to substitute for the above views " an innate tendency to deviate from the parental type operating through periods of adequate duration." According to this hypothesis " a change takes place first in the structure of the animal, and this when sufficiently advanced may lead to modifications of habits." It is difficult to understand this as anything more than a mere statement of a belief in derivation as a fact. It seems to mean that species change because they tend to change. We may add to this if we please that they change independently of external circumstances, and by virtue of a creative plan embodied in them, or rather in the matter of which they are composed ; for Prof. Owen appears to stretch his theory so far as to assert the formation of species spontaneously from inorganic matter, thus giving us the additional thesis that species tend to be before they actually exist. It is also to be observed that the tendency to change, though not caused by external circumstances must act in unison with physical changes, otherwise it would be worse than useless. Taking the case of the Hipparioa and horse, Lamarck would inform us that the former endeavoured to accommodate itself to drier and harder ground, and thus changed the character of its feet. Darwin would say that as the ground became harder those individuals which had the most equine feet would succeed best in the struggle for existence. Owen very properly demurs to both views, holding that there were dry and wet places suitable for horses and Hipparia both in the Miocene and Modern periods, and that the increase of dry ground would merely limit the range of Hipparia and not produce horses ; but he holds that the Hipparia changed into horses merely because they tended to do so, and that if the change suited the 134 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June conditions of the case, that was a correlation arising from the plans of the Creator, and with which their poor brains and greater or less safety and comfort had nothing to do. If we were disposed to accept this hypothesis of Owen, we should not ill doing so arrive at any true cause, and we should at the same time find ourselves involved in the old difficulties. That a Hipparion should change into a horse it would be necessary that not only his feet but his teeth and other structures should change in harmony with each other. This must take place either at once or gradually. If at once, then a pair of horses must be born from Hipparia in one herd, and must be isolated from the rest so as to produce a herd of horses. This is hard to believe ; and if we resort to gradual change, the required isolation of the breed will be still more difficult to secure. The demands upon our faith are obviously greater here than even in the hypothesis of Darwin, — that is if we can be induced to place any reliance on the argument of the latter as to struggle for existence. (4.) The last of these hypotheses which I shall notice, and, in my view, the most promising of them all, is one which has recently been ably advocated by Mr. Edward D. Cope in a memoir on the " Origin of Genera," published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences,* and which is based on the well- known analogy between embryonic changes, rank in the Zoological scale and Geological succession. It may be illustrated by the remarkable and somewhat startling fact, that while no authenti- cated case exists of animals changing from one species to another, they are known to change from one genus or family to another, and this without losing their individuality. Prof. Dumeril, of Paris, and Prof. Marsh, of New Haven, have recently directed attention to the fact that species of Siredon, reptiles of the Lakes of the Rocky Mountains and of Mexico, and which, like our North American Menohranclius, retain their gills during life, when kept in captivity in a warmer temperature than that which is natural to them, lose their gills, and pass into a form hitherto regarded as of a difiierent genus and family, — the genus Amhlysoma. In this case we may either suppose that the Amblysoma, under unfavourable circumstances, has its maturity and reproduction prematurely induced before it has lost its * Philadelphia, 18G9. 1869.] DAWSON — IDEAS OF DERIVATION. 135 gills, or that the Siredou has, under certain circumstances, the capacity to have its period of reproduction arrested until it has gone on a stage further in growth and has lost its gills. In any case the same species — nay, the same individual — is capable of existing in a state of maturity as a creature half fish find half reptile in regard to its circulation, or in a more perfect reptilian state in which it breathes solely by lungs. Further, we may suppose conditions of the earth's surface in which there would only be Siredons or only Amblysomas, and a change in these conditions inducing the opposite state. Here we have for the first time actual facts on which to base a theory of development. These facts point to the operation of two causes — first, the possible Retardation or Acceleration of development, and secondly, the action of outward circumstances on the organism capable of this retardation or acceleration. We here substitute for the tendency to vary of Owen's theory, the ascertained fact of reproductive retardation or acceleration, and for the struggle for existence, the action of changed physical conditions, and for the question as to the change of one species into another, the change of the same species from one genus into another. Further, instead of vague speculations as to possible changes of allied animals, we are led to careful consideration of the embryonic changes of the individual animal, and as to the differences that would obtain were its development accelerated or retarded. We can thus range animals in genetic series within which anatomical characters would show change to be possible. I cannot follow these series out into the elaborate lists tabulated by Mr. Cope, but may proceed to notice the limitations which his views put to the doctrine of derivation. It is obvious that, if this be the real nature of derivation as a possible hypothesis, then derivation must follow the same law with metamorphism and embryonic development. Those animals which undergo a meta- morphosis must be those most liable to such changes ; for example, ft Batrachian would be more likely to be so than a true reptile, eonsequently those lower forms of animals in which metamorphosis is most decided would be those in which derivation would be most active, and when they had attained to a condition in which metamorphosis is of less amount, the tendency to change would be diminished. When we compare this with the actual succession of animals in geological time, we can see, as many Palaeontologists have remarked, that order of succession in time and order of l36 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June embryonic development correspond with one another to a remarkable degree. We see also, however, that in the higher animals changes of species have taken place more rapidly than in those of lower grade, though in the latter metamorphosis is usually more marked — a fact not apparently in accordance with our hypothesis. According to this view, also, a species once created may have in itself a capacity for passing through several generic forms, constituting a cycle which ever tends to return into itself, or to advance and recede by steps more or less abrupt under the law of retardation and acceleration, combined with the influence of external circumstances. Yet the dimensions of the orbit of each species must be limited, its duration in time must also be limited, and its capacity to pass into a really new species must still be a point subject to doubt, but open to anatomical investigation and inference. As already hinted, it is a most important point of this theory, that when we have ascertained the series of embryonic changes of any animal, we have thereby ascertained its possibilities in regard to accelerated develop- ment. Its possibilities in regard to retarded development may be inferred by similar studies of animals higher in the scale. Now, if we knew the embryonic history of every animal recent and fossil, in its anatomical details, we should be able to construct out of this a table of possible affiliation of animals, and should be able to trace our existing species through the same genera, families, orders and classes in which they might have existed in geological time, and to predict what they might become in time still to come. This hypothetical scheme of creation would approach to the actual one in as far as we were able to correlate it with the physical changes which have occurred or will occur on our planet. Let us take as a crucial test the case of man himself. The actual anatomical and physiological differences which obtain between those races in which maturity is latest, and those in which it is earliest, and a comparison of these with embryonic characters, would give us the modern data. The comparison of these with the most ancient human remains might enable us to infer whether retardation or acceleration has been the tendency in historic or geological time. From this we might infer what might be the condition of man under a still more accelerated development than any now known, or under that antediluvian condition in which immaturity is said to have been 1800.] DAWSON — IDEAS OP DERIVATION. 137 protracted over half a century, or that still future time predicted in Holy Writ when the days of a man shall be as those of a tree. Having worked out these problems, we would be in a position to inquire as to the possible transiti)a of Homo from or towards any other generic form. I would by no means put forward this theory of embryonic development as including the whole law of introduc- tion of species or genera* any more than the others reviewed, but I must say that to my mind it appears to hold forth the most promising line of investigation, with the hope of arriving ultimately at some true expression of the law of creation with reference to organized beings. What that law will ultimately prove to be, and to what extent it may include processes of derivation, it is impossible now to say. At present we must recognize in the prevailing theories on the subject merely the natural tendency of the human mind to grasp the whole mass of the unknown under some grand general hypothesis, which, though perhaps little else than a figure of speech, satisfies for the moment. We are dealing with the origin of species precisely as the Alchemists did with Chemistry, and as the Diluvialists and Neptunists did with Geology; but the hypotheses of to-day may be the parents of investigations which will become real science to-morrow. In the meantime it is safe to affirm that whatever amount of truth there may be in the several hypotheses which have engaged our attention, there is a creative force above and beyond them, and to the threshold of which we shall inevitably be brought after all their capabilities have been exhausted by rigid investigation of facts. It is also consolatory to know that species, in so far as the Modern period, or any one past Geological period may be concerned, are so fixed that for all practical purposes they may be regarded as unchanging. They are to us what the planets in their orbits are to the Astronomer, and speculations as to origin of species are merely our nebular hypotheses as to the possible origin of worlds and systems. One word in conclusion with reference to our oWn work here as a Society, and as individual collectors of facts. We may not be in a position to take any leading place in the agitation of the * It is but fair to say that Mr. Cope himself admits the action of natural selection as one cause of change. Vol. IV. K No. 2. 138 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June questions to which I have referred ; but we are well situated for the useful task of accumulating the necessary data for their settlement. The broad area of the American continent, the wide space occupied by its geological formations, the completeness of the series of its palaeozoic rocks, the unbroken connection of its post-pliocene and modern fauna and flora, the meeting on this continent within recent times of multitudes of indigenous and exotic species of plants and animals, the existence up to our own time of feral and aboriginal conditions which are pre-historic in the Eastern continent, — these are all points of vantage on which we can seize in dealing with these questions ; and if we properly inform ourselves as to what is being done elsewhere, and diligently improve our own opportunities, I see nothing to prevent us from taking the lead of those who in the Old World are pursuing such inquiries in a comparatively narrow field, and under conditions in many respects less favourable. I must insist, however, that this is not to be done by vieing with them in crude speculations and hypotheses, or in building up specious fabrics of conjecture to dazzle the popular eye, but in patient, honest, and careful accumulation of focts. We should also bear in mind that in the greater centres of literary and scientific life, there is a strong temptation, especially on the part of ambitious men who have their own fortunes to build up, to deal in that sensation science with which the popular literature of the day is deluged. In our own comparatively obscure field there is little inducement to this or opportunity for its display, and this is so for in favor of a healthy scientific tone, which we should endeavour to preserve and cultivate. Our danger arises from being too ready to follow the extreme views put forth elsewhere, and from impatience with the slow returns for honest and careful work. 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 139 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ARCTIC AND WESTERN PLANTS IN CONTINENTAL ACADIA. By G F. Matthew. (Read before the Natural History Society of New Bruuswick, ]3th April, 1869.) To the botanist as well as to the geologist this portion of the North American continent presents an inviting field for research ; and the more so as till within a few years its flora has received but little attention. Although one cannot expect to find new species in a region, a large part of which, when viewed from a geological stand-point, has but recently emerged from the ocean, and has, therefore, received its flora from countries older and better known ; yet the many peculiarities which may be observed in the distribution of plants in Acadia, form of themselves a sub- ject in the study of which leisure hours may be profitably spent. To bring some of these peculiarities into notice by the public, and to indicate, though veiy imperfectly, the causes which have produced them, are the objects of the following remarks. From the correspondence of natural features in Maine and New Brunswick, and from their situation, being alike exposed to the same variations of temperature, we would naturally expect to find no very marked differences between the floras of the two countries. This, indeed, is in a great measure the case, if we look upon Maine as a whole ; but if w>; separate from it that portion of the State northward of the mountains which cross its centre, and eastward of the Penobscot River, a palpable difference in the vegetation of the section north and south of this divisional line is apparent. The northern section, including the province of New Brunswick, may be designated Continental Acadia. Apparently merging into New England on the south — for there is no conspicuous natural barrier between the two countries — it is, nevertheless, as regards the indigenous plants which grow within its borders, closely allied to the neighboring province of Quebec, although a mountain range hitervenes. This portion of Acadia contains four principal districts, viz. : an upper plain or plateau varying from about 200 140 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June to 500 feet above the sea, watered by the Upper St. John and its tributaries, the northern affluents of the Penobscot, and the River Restigouche. A triangular plain expands from a point within a few miles of the Maine boundary to a width of 150 miles or more, where it passes beneath the waters of the Gulf of St. Law- rence. This Lower Plain rarely rises more than 300 teet above the sea. Between the upper and lower plain lies a broken country rising into a knot of high hills in Northern New Brunswick. Lastly, there is a series of parallel ridges in the south, forming a hill-country of less altitude than the last, lying along the north shore of the Bay of Fundy. About two-thirds of this region is drained by the River St. John, which breaks from the level of of the upper plain at the Grand Falls ; and, descending through several rapids and quick-waters, reaches tide-level at the western border of the lower plain, whence its course to the sea (distant 90 miles) is comparatively sluggish. The rest of the Maritime Provinces of Canada, consisting of Nova Scotia and the twin islands of Prince Edward and Cape Breton, may be comprised under the term Insular Acadia. Before describing in detail the peculiar groupings of species in this region, it may not be amiss to mention a few of the agencies which have given rise to the diversified forms of vegetation now existing on the earth ; and then to add some remarks upon their peculiar manifestation in that part of America to which these ob- servations more particularly relate, and to show their influence upon the range of plants within it. Of these agents perhaps the most important is Variation of Temperature. It is well known that there are two directions in which this variation occurs, one on going north or south from the Equator, and the other in ascending from the level of the ocean to the tops of mountains. In both of these the temperature becomes lower in proportion to the elevation in the one case, or to the distance from the equatorial circle in the other. This decrease in temperature exerts so great an influence over plants that few species are found to be common to places widely diflering either in latitude or altitude. Soil is another influential agent in the limitation of species and the modification of individuals ; some plants being peculiarly adapted to certain kinds of soil, and rarely found growing in any other, while others, although they may exist, present a puny and 1869.J MATTHE.W— ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 141 sickly appearance when found growing in soils not adapted in tex- ture and composition to their nature. Moisture also is of the utmost importance to the well-being of all cellular bodies, as well vegetable as animal ; and is in fact so much a necessity that when deprived of it they cease to live. These three agencies are those which have played the most im- portant part in diversifying the vegetation of the globe ; but two of them, viz.: temperature and moisture, present themselves under a somewhat peculiar aspect in Acadia. The renovation of the ocean by the interchange of waters throughout its vast expanse, is aflected through the medium of ocean currents, flowing alternately to and from the poles. Such of these " ocean rivers " in the northern hemisphere as flow northward are continually thrown further and further east as they approach the arctic circle, by the retarded rotation of the earth from west to east ; while such as run southward are thrown to the west. Hence, while Europe is bathed in the warm waters of the Gulf stream, running in a long arc northward across the Atlantic, the polar current, having a westerly momentum, clings to the Ameri- can coast, and Acadia not only shares the cool climate prevalent along this seaboard, but owing to its semi-insular position, has its temperature still further lowered. This is strikingly evident when the climate of St. John is compared with that of cities in Europe — such as Bordeaux, Turin and Venice, — under the same parallel of latitude. The principal cause of this difierence of temperature is the fact that here we have the north-east a refrigerator in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, traversed as it is by a branch of the polar current, which entering at the Straits of Belleisle, sweeps around the shores of the Lower Provinces and finds an outlet in the Gut of Canso and further east. We have also a cool vapor bath in the sea fogs, which in summer bathe our south-eastern shores, and whose influence on vegetation will be noticed in the sequel. Thus we see that within the limits of these maritime provinces there are variations of temperature, which mere extent of surface or eleva- tion of land will not account for, but which are mainly dependent on ocean currents and their concomitants. In comparing the relative heat and cold prevalent in various parts of Acadia, and other portions of the British possessions, it has not been thought necessary to notice the temperature of the colder months of the year, during which nature, in these latitudes, 142 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June sinks into partial inaction, but only of those when she is in full activity. The following table, condensed from the Canadian Year Book for 1868, will enable the reader to follow these changes duritig the five warm months, and to effect a comparison of the mean summer temperature in various parts of the Dominion. It also serves to show that the summer temperature of St. John is comparatively low. It is probably this, and the want of any observations by which an estimate of the climate of the interior could be formed, which has led the author of that portion of the Year Book from which this table is drawn, to include the whole of New Brunswick ia the same climatic division with Prince Edward's Island, and that portion of the south shore of the St. Lawrence between Gasp^ and Quebec. As regards the northern part of New Brunswick, this would appear to be a natural division ; but when the climate of central New Brunswick is better known, I am inclined to think it will fall within the division comprising the eastern townships and that part of Upper Canada between Lake Ontario and the Ottawa River. Instead of falling within the region where wheat can scarcely be grown with profit, this portion of New Brunswick is likely to be recognized hereafter as a country much more favor- able to farming operations than might be inferred from the classi. fication given in the work above cited. It is distinguished from other parts of the Province by the presence of a group of plants, which indicate a climate in which Indian corn can be brought to perfection. The analysis of the Acadian flora given on succeeding pages will, it is believed, fully bear out this opinion. Table No 1. May. June. July. Augt. Sept. Oct. Sum Mean Labrador . . . . 35.0 42.0 48.0 51.0 42.0 31.0 47.0 St. John's, Newfoundland 39.3 48.0 56.2 57.9 53.0 44.5 54.0 St.John,N. B. . . 47.3 54.5 59.7 60.0 55.0 45.7 58.1 Thunder Bay, L. Superior . 48.9 58.7 62.2 58.8 48.2 41.9 59.9 Halifax, N.S. . 48.0 56.3 62.3 63.7 57.0 47.0 60.S Toronto . . . . 51.5 61.0 66.3 65.7 57.4 45.0 64.3 WolfviUe . . . . 51.6 61.9 67.5 65.5 58.3 49.2 65.0 Quebec .... 61.6 63.1 67.5 65.9 57.6 44.0 6.55 Not only the coldness, however, but the humidity of the atmosphere, in many parts of Acadia, exercises a powerful influence upon its flora. It is a well-known fact that the land and sea breezes which 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 143 alternately fan districts bordering the sea in intcr-tropical regions, result from the periodical heating and cooling to which such lands are subject every 24 hours. Analogous to this is the prevalence of certain sets of wind on the coast of large areas of land in temperate latitudes, during the summer, and of others during the winter months. It is on these lands in going north from the coast that we meet with a new group of species, which range thence up the St. John River and its tributaries into Northern Maine. The influence oF natural drainage of soils upon the distribution of species in the neighboring Province of Canada, has been observed by Mr. Ma- coun, of Belleville, in some remarks drawing attention to the occur- rence of certain western species on the dry gravel ridges in that neighborhood ; and the presence of continental forms in certain part.s of the interior of Acadia, such as the valleys of Kings County, in the southern hills, the dry terraced lands of the St- John River and its tributaries, and the rich calcareous districts in the south-west part of the upper plain, are but manifestations of the same law of distribution, lands thoroughly drained being in a condition to absorb and retain more heat than those which are wet. Were it not for the depressed position of a portion of the lower plain, along the base of the southern hills, which is little above sea-level, and the imperfect drainage which results from the flatness of this region, there would be a more decided exhibition of western species in the southern countries than we now find. It is to be regretted that so small a part of Continental Acadia has yet received the attention of botanists, and that the material for working 6ut the subject of this paper is so imperfect. It is, therefore, quite possible that a part of its contents may not be confirmed by more minute and extended investigation. The scantiness of the material may be inferred when it is stated that out of the fourteen counties into which the Province of New Brunswick is divided, a detailed examination has been made in parts of four only. The three catalogues upon which these remarks are based, comprise species collected in Kent County, by Rev. James Fowler, and Rev. J. P. Sheraton ; in Central York, by Prof. L. W. Bailey ; and in a part of St. John and Kings, by * See article ou flora of Canada, by Druoiraond, Can. Nat., Vol. 1, new series, page 405. 144 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June the writer. Reference is also made to notes taken by Prof. Bailey, during a rapid journey through the northern highlands, and by the Rev. James Fowler, when at Ddlhousie, as well as to the report of G. L. Goodale, of the Maine Scientific Survey. In Continental Acadia, as previously defined, there are four principal types of vegetation, exclusive of maritime species, viz. : I. Arctic and Sub-Arctic. II. Boreal. III. Coutinental. IV. New England type. The latter includes all indigenous species which have an exten- sive range in Acadia, especially in its southern parts. I. Arctic and Suh-Arctic {or Alpine and Suh-AIpine.) — This type, as being the most ancient flora of the country, and also being found on the low lands at the parallel of 45° N., halfway between the equator and the pole, deserves our first attention. The species so far as known are the following : No. 1.— LIST OF ARCTIC AND SUB-ARCTIC SPECIES. Spec IKS. Southern Hills. Lower Plain. Northern Highlands. Alsine Greenlandica (Greenland Sand- wort) "Rubus Chamtemorus (Cloud-berry) Solidago virga-aurea (Golden Rod) Seuecio pseudo-arnica Yaccinium uligiuosuui (Swamp Huckle-bcny) . . - - Calluua vulgaris (Heather) *Empetrum uigi'um (Crow-berry) - Cares capillaris - - - " - Aspleuium viride . - - - *Solidago thy rsoidea (ThyrsoidGoldeu Rod) - * Yaccinium Yitis-Idea (Hill Cran- berry) *Euphrasia officinalis (Eyebright) *S' *S' '*S'* -S'' .g, ^S' *E'" *E'' *E' *E' .... *E'' [Species in this list marked S', occur only near the sea-shore on the Bay of Fundy and coast of Maine. Those marked E' have been gathered along or near the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.] Of these species Senecio p»eudo-arnica is introduced on the authority of Prof. Asa Grey, as occurring at Grand Manan, and the Mountain Sandwort {AJsine, or Stellaria, Gran land tea,) is added on the same authority, it having been found at the sea level, on the coast of Eastern Maine. The common Scotch 1869. J MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 145 Heather, {Calluna vulgaris,) has been found near Halifax, by Prof. Lawson, and is more abundant at Cape Breton and New- foundland. It is accredited to New Brunswick, by Loudon. Prof. Bailey noticed the Bog Bilberry (^Vaccinium uliginosvm,') and the Cow Berry (Vaccinium Vitis Idea,) growing on Bald Mountain, the culminating point of the Northern Highlands, but does not seem to have met with any other representatives of this type at the north. We may, perhaps, except the mountain Cinquefoil {Potentilla tridentata,) gathered on the Tobique River, but which, although commonly considered Sub- Alpine, has such a range in Acadia, as to show that it may perhaps, with more propriety, be looked upon as a Boreal form. These, and the remaining species of the hst, not noticed above, find a congenial climate at St. John. One very obvious cause of their presence here, as already observed, with regard to other species, is the abundance of cool sea fogs in summer time, and consequent low temperature and moist atmosphere. The more thoroughly Arctic species, such as the Cloud Berry (Ruhus Chamcemorus) and the Crow Berry, (^Empetrum nigrum,) show a partiality for the peat bogs, so common in our " Barrens," where they grow in company with the Bastard Toad Flax, (^Comandra livida,) and other high northern forms. The Sub- Arctic species of our list, have been mostly gathered on the cliflFs and terrace banks, bordering the Bay of Fundy. On these, the Eyebright, (^Eiiplvrasi i officinalis,) and the Thyrsoid Goldenrod [Solidago thyrsoidea) abound. The first of these has also been met with at Dalhousie, on the Bay of Chaleur. The mountain Cinquefoil has an extensive range throughout Acadia, having been seen near Mount Katahdin, on the Lower Tobique, at several points around the Bay of Fundy, and on the coast of Maine. It even flourishes at Windsor, Nova Scotia, where the mean summer temperature cannot be far from 65° Fahr. The Green Spleen wort, (A.^plenium viride,) a native of Newfoundland, Gaspe, Labrador and the Rocky Mountains, grows on the sea cliffs near this city, in company with Carex canescens var. vitilis, Cinna arundinncea var. pendula, &c. I may add that the Cowberry, ( Vaccinium Vitis Idea,) which goes by the name of Hill Cranberry with us, is not only quite common near the coast of the Bay of Fundy, but has also been met with by Mr. Fowler, at Richibucto. The comparison of the position of this little group of Arctic 146 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June forms, with that of a similar assemblage of Alpine plants on the White Mountains of New Hampshire, is one of very great interest, when it is considered that the Acadian Sub-Arctic flora grows at the sea level. Let us then look at the vertical range of some of the plants above named on those eminences, the highest peaks of North Eastern America. Dr. Dawson gives 4,000 feet above the sea as the upper limit of evergreens. Here firs cease to grow, and the mountain side is covered with small shrubs and herbs. On the Plateau between Mounts Washington and Munroe, at a height of 5,000 feet, the Arctic flora is in full possession, and extends thence to the summit. If we note the range of such of our own Arctic and Sub-Arctic species as grow there, we find that they come no lower down the mountain side than to points varying from 4,500 to 3,500 feet above the sea. It is supposed that the principal masses of rain clouds hang at a height of from half a mile to one mile above the earth, in regions near the sea level, encircling the mountain tops with their vapory masses ; and the clouds clustering at such a height around Mount Washington, would wrap those little Alpine plants which grow towards the top of the mountain, in those thick mists in which they delight. Need we wonder then that such lowly forms should find a congenial home on the cool mist-covered hills of Maritime Acadia. By its cool summer temperature, its humid climate, and conse- quently its vegetation, St. John, when compared with these New England mountains, may be looked upon from a botanical point of view, as standing upon an eminence nearly 4,000 feet high ; for it is at this height, on the White Mountains, that evergreens cease and Alpine plants take their place. Fancying ourselves standing upon this elevation, and looking around us through the medium of Mr. Murdock's observations, and those of Acadian botanists, we see across " the Bay '' and beyond the fertile valley of Annapolis, the hills of Nova Scotia, rising ridge upon ridge to a mountain range, equal in height to our own, and our sister city of Halifax on its crest ; for she has more fog and rain than we have. Around her grow the Scotch heather, the mountain Cinquefoil, and other Alpine forms mentioned in the preceding list.* * I infer this from the table, (at foot of opposite page,) prepared by Mr. Mm-dock, from his own notes and data, published by the late Colonel Myers, of Halifax. 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 147 Mr. G. Murdock, in a paper on the Meteorology of St. John, read before this Society in 1863, pointed to this phenomenon as exhibited in the vicinity of this city, in the following words : " In the wind " columns it is observed that the increase and duration of " southerly weather follows very nearly that of the temperature. '• July is the month o^mnximum southerly weather, and December " of minimum. From July to December, there is a constant " diminution, and from this latter month to July again a steady " increase." Of these southerly winds, the south-west is by far the most frequent, and, if continuous, sooner or later brings upon the southern coast of Acadia those fogs for which St. John is unfortunately so notorious. That such is the case may be inferred from the following table, compiled by the same accurate and pains-taking observer, showing a mean of the number of foggy days per month for the years 1861-1867 : — Table No. 2. May. June. July. Augt, Avrge. number of foggy days 3.3 4.2 6.2 6.7 Rainy days .... 10.0 6-8 9.9 7.6 Mean estimate cloudy days 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.2 From this table we gather that, during each of the two hottest months of the year, St. John is enveloped for nearly a week in constant fog; and this misty curtain, by its presence, not only excludes the direct rays of the sun, but by its coolness lowers perceptibly our summer temperature. During the months of July and August, there is also a large rainfall, and if we add to the rainy and foggy days those which are cloudy, but nineteen days out of the two mid-summer months remain during which the sun shines upon us in unclouded splendor. If we give due weight to these sources of humidity and cold, and consider, also, that our position on the sea-side is an additional cause of a diminished temperature, we need feel no surprise at the sub-arctic summers which prevail at St. John, 3.4 2.3 5.7 8.1 7.6 8.1 5.5 6.1 6.3 TABLE No. 3.— Mean of 1864 and 1865. June. 7.4 4. May. July. Aug. - Oct. Sum Mean. 12.5 4- 6. 4.3 6.5 6.5 1.5 1.7 3.5 1. 6.7 5.3 St. John, N. B., do. do IL 12.5 7.5 11. 8.5 7. 6.6 16.5 7.5 15.75 7.8 8. 5.5 St. John, N. B., do.do 148 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June nor at the sub-arctic type of vegetation which flourishes around us. It is well known that humidity, in its influence over the distribution of Arctic plants, in a limited degree represents cold. But when a climate is both cool and moist, as ours is, it presents a double attraction to these little northern adventurers. Having seen what a chilling effect these south-west winds, with their accompanying fog and rain, have at the coast, let us now follow the same breezes into the interior. As soon as the fogs pass the coast, they are rapidly absorbed by the atmosphere (expanded by warmth radiated from the heated earth), and may be traced in their progress inland, in the long banks of cumuli-clouds which hang over the southern hills ; and are finally dissipated entirely in the onward progress of the southerly winds, which now possess nearly the original warmth and most of the moisture that they had when first they began their journey from the Gulf Stream. Now pre-eminently invigo- rating and refreshing, these winds course onward toward the shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, stimulating the growth of many species of plants, which cannot abide their chilling influences at the coast. As may be inferred, they bear a very diflFerent reputation along the Gulf from that which attaches to them with us. In spring and early summer, they blow down the valleys of the Miramichi, and other streams debouching on that coast, as warm breezes, prevalent during the night and morning, giving a great stimulus to vegetation; but in the evening they are pushed back, or forced upward by a strong, cold wind from the Gulf, but lately relieved from its wide fields of floe-ice. The latter (N. E. winds) often blow with much violence about 4 or 5 o'clock in the afternoon, and such is their chilling influence, that flowers which have been in bloom in Fredericton for a fort- night are (about 1st June) only opening their petals on the Miramichi. There is nearly the same diiference between St. Jiohn and Fredericton at this period, although the first flowers of spring, such as the Mayflower, Epigoea rtpens, usually opens with us a little in advance of their time of flowering at the capital. The advent of spring is undoubtedly first felt at St, John, but the increase of fog and chilly winds in the month of May checks the gi'owth of plants with us, while the very same winds give an increased impetus to their growth and expansion in the interior, where, at the 1st of June, vegetation, in its summer development, is a fortnight in advance of the coast, and subse- X ntly much more. 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 149 In table 1 it will be seen that the valley of Cornwallis, in Nova Scotia, has a summer mean of 65 deg. ; and it is probable that a large area in the interior of Continental Acadia will be found to have, at that period, a temperature equally high. At Fredericton '• 90 deg. in the shade" is not rare, and at Woodstock the mercury is said to rise to 100 deg. Fah't. In default of any meteorological tables shewing the climatic changes of the interior of Acadia, I have been somewhat prolix in thus enlarging on the S. W. winds, in order to give some idea of the varying influence which this important agent exercises over the growth of plants. Of soils, Continental Acadia possesses a great variety, which have a proportionate influence with the causes already noted upon the range of plants within its borders. The Highlands, both North and South, being mainly made up of metamorphic rocks, which are comparatively impervious to water, the drainage of the soil upon them is thereby much impeded. Hence, it happens that, notwithstanding the hilliness of these districts, there are, especially in the southern hills, numerous peat-bogs, interspersed with bare rocky tracts known as " barrens." These barrens extend for many miles along the coast of the Bay of Fundy, where granite and hard metamorphic rocks prevail, and where the natural drainage is imperfect, and the soil scanty and unproductive. The drier portions are covered with a profusion of ericaceous shrubs, &c., such as blue-berries (Vaccmium Pennsi/lvanicum) , Labrador Tea (Ledum lati/oUum), Leather Leaf (Cassandra calycnlata), Sheep Laurel (Kalmia angustifoUa), Rhodora Canadensis, &c. In the swamps, and on mossy slopes, knee-deep with sphagnum, grow the Sweet Gale (Mp'ica Gale), Marsh Rosemary (^Andromeda polifolia), Cran-^ berries (Vaccinium oxycoceus), &c. The larger depressions are occupied by peat bogs, or lakes and ponds, with which such tracts are often studded. There is a striking resemblance in the aspect of these barrens, dotted as they are with numerous little sheets of water, and interspersed with belts and clumps of ever- green trees, to the open tracts in Newfoundland, so graphically described in your late Vice-President's paper on that island, and to the Laurentian region of Canada. The arable lands along this coast are chiefly clay flats, usually covered with terraced beds of sand. The soil on the ridges is mostly gravelly, and here the forest growth is of Black and Yellow 150 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Birch (Betida lenta et excelsa). Beech, Maple, and other forest trees of the interior are seldom or never seen. Beneath the shade of the evergreen growth on the clay flats we find the Tway blade (Listera Cordata), the Mitrewort {MltelJa Niida), the Rattlesnake plantain (^Goodi/era reprns), the Dwarf orchis (^Platanthera ohtusafa), the one-flDwered Pyrola {^Moneses unijiora), and other shade-loving plants. We have seen that the prevalence of a moist climate and im- pervious soil, coupled with a low temperature, give rise to thick evergreen forests, peat-bogs and swamps saturated with moisture ; and while producing, even during clear weather, great radiation of heat and moisture, these causes have contributed to encourage the growth of such northern plants as those above mentioned on the maritime slopes of our southern hills. On the declension of this hill-country toward the plains of the interior, however, another set of agencies comes into play. It has been already intimated that the summer skies of the central districts are clearer than those of the coast, and the precipitation of moisture less profuse. In the valleys, among the more northerly ranges of the southern hills, nmch of the soil is loamy, and naturally well drained, as well as fertile. These rich loams are co-extensive with the lower coal formation in New Bruns- wick. They border the Lower Plain throughout, fill the valleys of the Kennebackasis and Petticodiac Rivers, form islands on it along its N. W. side, and re-appear in the valley of the Tobique among the northern hills. The fertility of other loams, such as those of the internal lands on the St. John River, and the upland tracts around Houlton and Woodstock on the Upper Plain, is evidenced by the growth of such species of plants as the Dwarf Ginseng or Ground Nut (^Aralla tn'/oJia), Closed Gentian (G%n- tiani Andrewsii), Showy Orchis (0/-cA is Speciabi/is), Bass Wood (Tilia Americana)^ Desmodiinn Canadmse, the two Osmorrhizas, Wild Ginger (^Asarum Canadense), and Butternut (Juglans cinerea,) Immediately north of us, but, as regards its flora, about 1,000 feet below, is the elevated plain of the Kennebackasis Bay, beyond which we may look down another 1000 feet, into the sunny valleys of Kings County. Over the Nerepis hills the great plain which occupies the central part of Acadia is visible, and far beyond it the plateau of Northern Acadia stretches away to its junction with the Notre Dame mountains ; while to the 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 151 South-West our imaginary mountain top connects, by scattered peaks rising through the fogs of the Bay of Fundy, with a similar elevation in eastern Maine, whence it declines, and finally sinks beneath the waters of the Atlantic. A Boreal or High Northern type of vegetation may be seen mingling with these Arctic forms, but also extending over many parts of Acadia, where they have not been found. Of this character are the following : — No. 2.— LIST OF BOREAL SPECIES. Species. Anemone parviflora multifida Stellaria uliginosa (Swamp Chick- weed Parnassia palustris Astragalus alpinus (Phaca astra- galtna) Robbinsii Oxytropis campestris Hedysarum boreale Geum macrophyilum (boreal) Potentella tridentata (Mountain cinquefoil) Ribes rubrum (Red Currants Sedum Rhodiola {Stone crop) Saxifraga Aizoon (Saxifrage) Nardosmiapalmata(SweetColtsfoot) Artemisia borealis (Wormwood)- • . ■ Aster gramlnifolius Tanacetum Huronense (Huronian Tansey) Vac'inium Canadense Castilleia septentrionalis Primula farinosa Utricularia minor (Bladderwort) — Rhinanthus Crista-galli (bellow Rattle) Halenia deflexa, (Spurred Gentian). CoUomia linearis Echinospermum Lappula Shepherdia Canadensis Rumex salicifolius (Dock) Comandra livida (Bastard Toad- Flat) Betula pumila Alnus viridis Populus balsamifera Pinus Banksiana Platanthera hyperborea Spiranthes latifolia (Ladies' tresses) Calypso borealis Allium schsenoprasum Tofieldia glutinosa (False Ashpo- dele Juncus filiformis (Thread Rush) Stygius Scirpus sylvaticus Eriophorum russeolum Carex lenticularis — flexilis rostrata oanesoens. var. vitilis 152 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. List of Boreal Species — Continued. [June Species, a ill n II n 1 II II a 1 ': '• * S'* S'» E* E* E* W* E* z N* Festuca ovina, var. duriuscula Cinna arundinacea, var. pendula- ... ... Woodsia hyperborea R. Br (Woodsia Ilvensis, var. alpina Watt) ::: N* Nabalus racemosus Lobelia Kalmii N* Pella3 a gracilis ... N.B.— The last seven species of this list have a range intermediate between this type and the succeeding one, [Species marked S' have been found at the seaside only in the southern hills. Those in second column marked W., occur on the St. John River, near the centre of New Brunswick. The remainder have been gathered near and on the Gulf Shore. S' and N' on the fourth column, designate respectively the southern and northern parts of the Upper Plain, including the Aroostoffk and St. John districts of Goodale. Species marked E' in the third column grow in that part of the southern hills bordering the Bay of Chaleur.] Mr. G. L. Goodale has the merit of first calling attention to the occurrence of this type of vegetation in Acadia. He says : — (2nd Report, p. 125.) "The country lying along the St. John, " from Boundary Branch to Grand Falls, is marked by the very " frequent occurrence of certain North-Western plants. And " the district comprised by the curved northern limit of Maine. " and a line drawn from Grand Falls to a point between Baker " Lake and Boundary Branch, will be found to be nearly the " range of these plants in our State. This district is so entirely " distinct botanically from any other portion of Maine, that its " limits can be said with confidence to be clearly defined. The " following list of plants may be considered as comprising the " most characteristic species of the St. Johns district : — " Anemone parviflora. " Astragalus alpinus. 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 153 " Astragalus sp. ign. " Oxytropis " " " Artemisia borealis. " Canadensis. " Tanacetum Huronense. " Vilfa Cuspidata." He also instances Astragalus Rohhinsii, Hedysarum boreale, Nahalus racemosus, Primula Mistassinica, SoUdago Virgaurea var. AJpina, and Tojieldia glutinosa, as plants of the same district. " The whole region through which these plants are distributed is covered by a thick growth of coniferous trees." So little is known of the flora of the northern counties of New Brunswick, with the single exception of Kent, that we know of the occurrence of but a limited number of these species on the streams flowing to tlie Gulf, but nevertheless feel satisfied that •the majority of them will yet be gathered there. The late Dr. Robb met with Anemone Multifida on the Restigouche, and Shepherdia Canadensis at Grand Falls, on the St. John River. The last named species has also been gathered near Dalhousie. Mr. Fowler has collected in the Gulf Counties Vaccinium Cana- dense and Nardosmla palmata (common), the rare Juncus Stygius, Carex lentiadaris, Cinna arundinacea var. peudula, Triticum canimmi, and Elymus Mollis. Prof. Bailey observed Allium Schaenoprasum during his descent of the Nepissiquit, Some of these, as well as the remaining species of the list (except about half a dozen species still known only on the Upper St. John,) have been gathered in the southern highlands. Near the outlet of the St. John River is a sheet of water, known as the Kennebackasis Bay, which is as deep as Behrings Straits, and deeper than those which divide France from England. Here the yachtsman may sail for 20 miles without starting sheet, and the lover of the picturesque will see several clifi"s and bold hills 400—600 feet high rising from the water's edge. Here also he will find the presence of man indicated by sawmills, factories, shipyards, broad cultivated fields, and scattered villages, whither the citizens of St. John resort in summer, not to avoid the heat, but to escape the fog. In this basin the spring floods of the St. John River, unable to find free egress to the ocean, are pent up until the middle of Vol. IV. L No. 2. 154 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Juue, exerting their chilling influence on the surrounding air. Even in midsummer, should a batlier more venturesome than his fellows swim out of the shallow c:>ves which line the shore, he will soon find his limbs stiffened by the refrigerating power of these profound waters. As there are here the conditions favorable to the growth of northern forms of vegetation, it will not excite surprise that the boreal type of Northern Acadia should re-appear around this Bay. Its shores have as yet received only an occasional summer glance from the botanist, and therefore the discovery of man}'- more northern forms will probably reward the search of a diligent explorer. Among the species thus far recognized I may instance a stone-crop or live-for-ever (Sediwi Rhodiola), a Saxifrage (^Saxifraga Aizoon), and the fern Wbodsia hyperhorea R. Br., which Mr. D. A. P. Watt regards as a northern variety of Woodsia llvensis,^ as common on the perpendicular cliffs near Rothsay. The first-named species was gathered many years ago on Cape Blomiden, N.S., by Dr. Robb, and, strange to say, has recently been found on the cliffs of Delaware River, Pennsylvania. On the rocky ledges and gravelly beaches around Kennebackasis Bay flourish the American primroses (^Primula farinosa and Primida Mistassinica). the first named in great abundance ; also the Wild Chive (^Allium Schcenoprasum) , a small Aster gramini/olius, and Hooker's Nahalus racemosus. The Northern Green Orchis (Habenaria Hyperhorea) is also sparingly met with. But the most conspicuous plant is the Northern Scrub Pine (Pinus Banksiana), which here attains gigantic dimensions, one in- dividual noticed rising to the height of more than 45 feet, with a girth of 6|^ feet. This tree, in its elm-like habit of growth, is in striking contrast with all the other evergreens around. At the end of May the numerous pyramidal erect spikes of flowers give it the aspect of a chandelier studded with yellow wax-lights. In Acadia it has an extensive range, for it is not only abundant throughout the Gulf districts, whence it spreads over to Grand Lake and the Petticodiac River, but Goodale also met with it in Northern Maine, where, however, it is scarce. Around the shores on the upper part of Kennebeckasis Bay, where the waters are shallow, species of a more southern type grow, such as the Nodding Wake Robin [Trillium cernuum), * TToodsia Ilveusis var. Alpina, Watt. 1869.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 155 the Yellow Violet (Viohc pubesccns,) and the two Anemones (A. nemorosa and A. Penmylvanica.) The shrubby cinquefoil (Potmtilla fniHcosa) also is very abundant. There are two other positions in which the species of this type are found in Southern New Brunswick. One, beneath the cool shade of evergreen trees which cover the abrupt hills between this Bay and the sea coast. On the mossy slopes under these trees the sweet Coltsfoot (^Nardosmia pahnata) opens its flowers in early spring ; and the Round-leaved Orchis (^Hahenarla ronin- difolia) may be found in bloom at a later period. Kalm's Lobelia (7/. Kahnii) and the spurred gentian (Halenia deflexa) intermingled with other Sub-Arctic forms, abound in the open pastures. Other species, such as the swamp chickweed (^Stdlarla uUginosa), for which, like Sedum Rhndiola, a station in Pennsyl- vania is known ; the large-leaved Geum ( G. macrophi/Ihtm), and the willow-leaved dock, {Ramex salicifolius) have been found at the sea-side, on the borders of silt marshes, near St. John. Looking at the known range of this type throughout Acadia, we may fairly suppose that the whole of its northern continental portion will be characterized by the presence of the foregoing and other boreal forms ; and that these may also be looked for around the whole southern height of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In Insular Acadia it probably usurps Prince Edward's Island, mantles over the hills of northern Nova Scotia, and in Cape- Breton blends with the Sub- Arctic flora of the Atlantic coast. In the interior of Continental Acadia there is a large are ■ overspread by a group of plants of a more southern type than those we have been considering. Weht of the AUeghanies they range as far south as New York, Ohio, and the south-west part of the Province of Ontario. Many of them, however, cross the Appalachian range, and are found more or less abundantly in West New England. The valley of the Connecticut River generally limits their range eastward. This is essentially the type which G. L. Goodale looks upon as characteristic of the Aroostook country. He says: — " This second region, which we can distinguish as the 'Aroos- " took district,' is characterized by the occurrence of a different •' flora. Instead of conifers, we find a prevalence of hard- " wood trees. Maples, Beeches, Oaks and Amentacete form the " forests. Under such trees we see flourishing Dicentras, 156 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June " Claytonias, Adlumia, Aralla Quinquefolia, SoUdago odora ; " on the shores of the rivers and their tributaries Lohelia " Kalmii, Anemone Pemisylvanica, and two species of Vitis, " Vitis labrusca and V. cordifoliay In the following list of Western or Continental species will be found some of those above mentioned ; but the range of others is such as to exclude them from this eastern fragment of a flora, which finds its home west of the Green Mountains of New En "land : — N"o. 3.— LIST OF CONTIN"EN-TAL SPECIES. Valleys Species. Upper Plain. Lower Plain. of the Southern Hills. Diceutra Caua lensis ft* Adlumia ciiThosa S* .... Nasturtium palustre var. hispidum * Lathi'rus palustrus var. myrtifolius * GDuothera chrysantha - e'-' .... Hippuris vulgaris * Artemisia biennis - - - - e" .... Blitum capitatum w* Listera couvallarioides - E* * Carex Kichardsonii - e* * cyliudrica - - - - E" .... Anemone Peausylvanica - 's* W* # Claytonia Caroliniaua - W * Couioselinura Cauadeuse - s*' Aralia quiuquelolia - - - - s* w'*'' * Pogoiiia verticillata - s* Goodale's remarks on the vegetation of the Arostook country apply signally well to the valley of the main St. John River from Eel River to the southern hills; and represent with almost equal fidelity the aspect of the western and central part of the Acadian Plain, where the soil is deep and drainage good. In approaching the Gulf this type of vegetation gives place to a collection of species having a more northerly range. In the valleys of the southern highlands, in King's County, it mingles with the New England flora prevalent to the S.VV., of which several species appear to be rare or wanting along that part of the Acadian Plain facing the Gulf of St. Lawrence. "V . Maritime Type. — The extensive and varied sea coast per- taining to the Lower Provinces aflfords ample scope for the growth of maritime plants. On the North Shore, Mr. Fowler has met with more than 30 species, as may be seen by the 18G9.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 157 following list, and most of them, with a few additional forms, occur also on the shore of the Bay of Fundy. No examination, so far as I am aware, has yet been made of the salt springs in this and the neighboring province of Nova Scotia, for maritime plants. Perhaps a few of the species which once grew around these springs, when they were at the margin of the sea, may yet linger there. Ranunculus Cymhalaria was collected at Fredericton by the late Dr. Robb, as appears from a specimen in the Herbarium of the University of that city, which is now distant 80 miles from the salt water. No. -LIST OF MARITIME SPECIES. Species. •si 11 Ranunculus Cvmbalaria * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Hudsouia toinentosa Honkenya peploides * * Aster Radula * Sdlidaffo seiiiiiervivens * * * Glaux iiiaritiuia * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Polygonum aviculare var. litloralo. . . . . * * * Ruppia maritima * Eleocharis i)vgmoea * * Carex maritiuius * * Spartina juncea * Glyceria uiavitinia Hordeuni iubatum * * Aspleuium inarinum* * This species is accredited to New Brunswick in Hooker's Plor. Bor. Am. 158 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Ramiriculas Cymhalaria, as above stated, has been gathered at Fredericton. But I am not aware of the existence of any others of the list inland, except the sub-maritime Aster Ridula and AtripJcx hastafa. In concluding this division of the subject, it may be added, that oar present knowledge of Acadian botany would lead us to suppose that the Continetital type, besides occupying the southern half of tlie Plateau of Continental Acadia, also spreads throughout the valley of the St. John, and its tributaries, to the heart of the Southern Hills, and reappears in the valley of the S. W. Miramichi. That the Boreal type lies around it to the north- east, and to the south-east, as far as the outlet of the St. John River. Here it mingles with the few sub- Arctic species which still hold their ground along this coast, and in like manner flourishes in company with these same species, on the low points of land jutting into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The sub-Arctic species form, as it were, a fringe to the general vegetation of the country skirting the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy. The occurrence of an Alpine group in the northern highlands seems as yet scarcely established, since, on the highest of those hills, Prof. Bailey met with but one species which could be referred to this type, viz., Vacclnium uliginosum. The New England type is widely spread throughout Acadia, but appears to be more espocially prevalent in the south-western counties. Several species, such as the Blue-bell (^Campanula rotundifoUa) , and Hemlock (Abies Canadensis), are reported by Mr. Fowler as scarce or wanting on the " North Shore ;'' and the Cedar (^Thuja Occidentalis) appears to be a rare tree in Nova Scotia, and even entirely wanting in most parts of that Province, Special Causes which havk Operated upon the Distribution of Plants in Acadia. Beside two agents, Winds and Migratory Birds, which have had a world-wide influence in spreading vegetation from one region to another, there is a third which, from the important part it has played in modifying the flora of Acadia, deserves special attention. This is the floating ice, and drift-wood of the Polar Current, and of the St. John River. 18G9.] MATTHEW — ON PLANTS IN ACADIA. 159 To form any conception of the vegetation which covered Acadia in early times, we mnst fall back upon the researches of Geology. As regards its modern botanical aspect, the history of Acadia begins with the Champlain epoch. The clay beds of this period, which cover wide areas in Soutliern New Brunswick, iave yielded no determinable i-emains of plants, except sea-weeds, which appear to belong chiefly to the Rhodosperras and Chlorosperms, and are of com:non occurrence in connection with fine clays near the coast. Thus we are left to infer the character of the vegetation from the climatic conditions indicated by the presence of Arctic and sub- Arctic animals in the Acadian seas at the Champlain epoch, and to the known flora of this period in Canada. At Green's Creek, on the Ottawa River, the deposits of this age contain concretions which have gathered around organic remains, such as sea-shells, fishes and bones of the seal. Many of them also contain the remains of land-plants. Dr. Dawson, to whom these relics were submitted for examination, detected the following species of plants: the Norway Cinquefoil (PotentiUa Norvegica), the Mountain Cinquefoil (P. tridentata), the Balm of Gilead {Popuhia balsamifem) , the Bear Berry (Arctostaphyhs Uva ursi), the White GloYer (Tri/oUum repens), the Round-Leaved Sundew (Drosera rotundlfolia), and two kinds of Pondweed {PoUmiogcton natans), and (P. perfoUatum.) Such a group of plants would find a congenial home in that part of Acadia now occupied by the sub-Alpine type of vegetation. Indeed, with the exception of the Bear Berry, they are all known denizens of that part of Acadia laved by the Arctic current. It may be perceived, then, that to reproduce the climatic conditions of the Champlain epoch, it is only necessary to submerge the St. Lawrence valley, and the plains east of the Appalachian range, and admit the Arctic current to sweep freely over these submerged lands. That such was the state of the southern half of Continental Acadia during a great part of the age in question there can be no doubt, the Southern Hills alone standing above the icy current, which swept by on either side. With such physical conditions universally prevalent in this region, the Arctic and sub- Arc tic nmst have been the predominant type of vegetation. As the ]»iains began to emerge during the succeeding Terrace Period, which was one of upheaval, no doubt many Boreal forms were addet is due to the transmission and escape of heat from the interior, Mr. Hopkins showed mathe- matically that there exists a constant proportion between the eff'ect of internal heat at the surface and the rate at which the temperature increases in descending. Thus, at the present time, while the mean temperature at the earth's surface is augmented only about one-twentieth of a degree Fahrenheit, by the escape of heat from below, the increase is to be found to be equal to June] HUNT — ON VOLCANIC ACTION. 171 about one degree for each sixty feet in depth. If, however, we go back to a period in the history of our globe when the heat passing upwards through its crust was sufficient to raise the superficial temperature twenty times as much as at present, that is to say, one degree of Fahrenheit, the augmentation of heat in descending would be twenty times as great as now, or one degree for each three feet in depth (Geol. Journal, viii. 59.) The conclusion is inevitable that a condition of things must have existed during long periods in the history of the cooling globe when the accumulation of comparatively thin layers of sediment would have been sufficient to give rise to all the phenomena of metamorphism, vulcanicity, and movements of the crust, whose origin Herschel has so well explained. Coming, in the next place, to consider the influence of pressure upon the buried materials derived from the mechanical and chemical disintegration of the primitive crust, we find that by .the presence of heated water throughout them, they are placed under conditions very unlike those of the original cooling mass. While pressure raises the fusing point of such bodies as expand in passing into the liquid state, it depresses that point for those which, like ice, contract in becoming liquid. The same principle extends to that liquefaction which constituted solution ; where, as is with few exceptions the case, the process is attended with condensation or diminution of volume, pressure will, as shewn by the experiments of Sorby, augment the solvent power of the liquid.* Under the influence of the elevated temperature, and the great pressure which prevail at considerable depths, sediments should, therefore, by the effect of the water which they contain, acquire a certain degree of liquidity, rendering not improbable the suggestion of Scheerer, that the presence of five or ten per cent, of water may suffice, at temperatures approaching redness, to give to a granitic mass a liquidity partaking at once of the character of an igneous and an aqueous fusion. The studies by Mr. Sorby of the cavities in crystals have led him to conclude that the constituents of granitic and trachytic rocks have crystallized in the presence of liquid water, under great pressure, at temperatures not above redness, and con- sequently very far below that required for simple igneous fusion. The intervention of water in giving liquidity to lavas, has, * Sorby, Bakerian Lecture, Royal Society, 1863. 172 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June ia fact, long been taught by Serope, and notwithstanding the opposition of Plutouists, like Durocher, Fournet,and Riviere, is now very generally admitted. In this connection, the reader is referred to the Geological Magazine for February, 1868, page 57, where the history of this question is discussed. It may here be remarked that if we regard the liquefaction of heated rocks under great pressure, and in presence of water, as a process of solution rather than of fusion, it would follow that diminution of pressure, as supposed by Mr. Serope, would cause not liquefaction, but the reverse. The mechanical pressure of great accumulations of sediment is to be regarded as co- operating with heat to augment the solvent action of the water, and as being thus one of the efficient causes of the liquefaction of deeply buried sedimentary rocks. That water, intervenes not only in the phenomena of volcanic eruptions, but in the crystallization of the minerals of eruptive rocks, which have been formed at temperatures far below that of igneous fusion, is a fact not easily reconciled with either the first or the second hypothesis of volcanic action, but is in perfect accordance with the one here maintained, which is also strongly supported by the study of the chemical composition of igneous rocks. These are generally referred to two great divisions, corresponding to what have been designated the trachytic and pyroxenic types, and to account for their origin, a separation of a liquid igneous mass beneath the earth's crust into two layers of acid and basic silicates, was imagined by Phillips, Durocher, and Buasen. The latter, as is well known, has calculated the normal composition of these supposed trachytic and pyroxenic magmas, and conceives that from them, either separately, or by admixture, the various eruptive rocks are derived ; so that the amounts of alumina, lime, magnesia, and alkalies, sustain a constant relation to the silica in the rock. If, however, we examine the analyses of th^^ eruptive rocks in Hungary and Armenia, made by Streng, and put forward in support of this view, there will be found such discrepancies between the actual and the calculated results as to throw grave doubts on Bunsen's hypothesis. Two things become apparent from a study of the chemical nature of eruptive rocks ; first, that their composition presents such variations as are irreconcilable with the simple origin generally assigned to them, and second, that it is similar to that of June] HUNT — ON VOLCANIC ACTION. 173 sedimentary rocks whose history and origin it is, in most cases not difl&cult to trace. I have elsewhere pointed out how the natural operation of mechanical and chemical agencies tends to produce among sediments, a separation into two classes, corresponding to the two groat divisions above noticed. From the mode of their accumulation, however, great variations must exist in the composition of the sediments, corresponding to many of the varieties presented by eruptive rocks. The careful study of stratified rocks of aqueous origin discloses, in addition to these, the existence of deposits of basic silicates of peculiar types. Some of these are in great part magnesian, others consist of compounds like anorthite and labradorite, highly aluminous basic silicates, in which lime and soda enter to the almost complete exclusion of magnesia and other bases ; while in the masses of pinite or agalmatolite rock we have a similar aluminous silicate, in which lime and magnesia are wanting, and potash is the predominant alkali. In such sediments as these just enumerated we find the representatives of eruptive rocks like peridotite, phonolite, leucitophyre, and similar rocks, which are so many exceptions in the basic group of Bunsen. As, however, they are represented in the sediments of the earth's crust, their appearance as exotic rocks, consequent upon a softening and extravasation of the more easily liquefiable strata of deeply buried formations, is readily and simply explained.* The object of the present communication has been to call the attention of geologists to the neglected views of Keferstein and Herschel, which I have endeavoured to extend and to adapt to the present state of our knowledge. It is proposed in another paper to consider the question of the agencies which have regulated the geographical distribution of volcanic phenomena both in ancient and in modern times. Montr&d, Canada, March, 1869. * See in this connection the Canadian Journal for 1858, p. 2U3 ; Quart. Geo. Society for 1859, p. 494; Amer. Jour. Science [2] xxxvii., 255, xxxviii. 182; also Geology of Canada, 1863, pp. 643, 669, and Rep. Gool. Canada, 1866, p. 230. 174 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June THE TOAD AS AN ENTOMOLOGIST. By A. S. Ritchie. The principal object of the following notes on the toad as a collector of beetles, is to show Low useful some of the lower animals are to man in his search after knowledge. Before entering on the subject, a few remarks on the habits of the toad may not be uninteresting. From the earliest accounts relating to this creature it has always been looked upon by the people as ugly, hideous, and venomous, while even supernatural powers have been attributed to it. Thus an old author says : " If the toad burrowed near the root of a tree, every one who ate a leaf of that tree would die, and if he only handled it, would be struck with sudden cramps." Some of the antidotes vecommended for toad venom are the fol- lowing: Black hellebore, powdered crabs, the blood of the sea tortoise mixed with wine, the stalks of dogs' tongues, the powder of the right horn of a hart, cummin, the vermet of a hare, the quintessence of treacle and the oil of a scorpion, mixed and taken ad libitum. Even in those days when these elaborate prescriptions were invented some good was acknowledged to exist in the toad. The "toad-stone" is alluded to by Shakespere in the passage: " Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which like a toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in its head." During the middle ages the stone found in the head of this reptile was popularly believed to be possessed of the power of giving warning of the presence of poisons. Fenton, writing in the year 1569, says : " There is to be found in the heads of old and great toads a stone they call borax or stelon. This worn in a ring gives a forewarning against venom." Another recommendation the toad had in those days was " its power as a styptic." Supposing any one to fall down and knock his nose against a stone, he could instantly stop the bleeding if he only had in his pocket a toad that had been pierced through with a piece of wood and dried in the shade or smoke. All he had to do was to hold the dried toad in his hand and the bleeding would immediately cease. The reason for this effect is, " that horror and fear constrained the June] RITCHIE — ON THE TOAD. 175 blood to run into its proper place, for fear of a beast so contrary to nature." In our day, however, the properties of this animal are better understood, although to a great extent it is still held to be venomous by the people, and generally killed wherever it is found. Recent investigations go to prove that an acrid secretion covers the body of the toad, which is the cause of sore mouths in dogs attacking it. One of the great uses of the toad is its propensity for destroying insects injurious to vegetation. Our gardeners ought to introduce them into their gardens and cultivate the acquaintance of these creatures ; their little trouble in so doing would be amply compensated. The toad is of a retiring disposition, loving dark corners and shady places. It has a slow, crawling motion, and is of a very timid disposition. Numerous instances might be cited of pet toads, and of their becoming quite tame. The toad differs in some respects from the nearly related frog. The structure of the mouth is, however, nearly the same ; the tongue is attached by the root, as it were, to the base and front of the mouth, the tip being reversed and pointing down the throat when the animal is at rest. The moment it sees an insect its eyes brighten and sparkle, the toes twitch, and quicker than the eye can follow, the tongue is thrown out, the insect transfixed, and withdrawn into the mouth. Unlike the frog, the toad does not spring after its prey, but remains seated. Having kept frogs in the Aquarium, I have noticed that they will spring two or three times their own length from the mos^ to catch a fly on the glass, using their tongue, as it were, on the jump. They seldom miss their mark. As far as my experience goes, neither of these animals will eat anything without life or motion. I have, however, often deceived a frog by moving a dead fly in the sight of the creature, which it always took readily. Many stories have been told of toads in rocks, and reasons have been given by authors as to the way in which they became so embedded. My subject has, however, nothing to do with these " old great toads," but to one of our own day and generation. After this digression, I shall now introduce my friend, the toad, in his capacity as a collector of beetles. The true naturalist, in the pursuit of his study, is a very teachable individual ; he never refuses assistance from any one, whatever his 176 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June station in life is, or however meagre his knowledge of the science may be. The many ways he uses the animal creation to advance His knowledge, in the particular branch of study, may be illus- trated as follows : — The Conchologist wearies for the pleasant days of summer, to take a trip to the sea-side, with his dredges and lines, his bottles and store boxes, where he adds to his collection many interesting and perhaps new forms of molluscan life. A trip to the sea-side is not always easily obtained ; but the naturalist may be seen in the markets buying the several species of flat fish, such as flounders and other species which live and feed at the bottom of the sea. Knowing them to be good collec- tors, he takes advantage of this fact to procure many and sometimes rare species, and thus adds to his cabinet, without the trouble of dredging for them. The Entomologist, likewise, has recourse to different methods to obtain the objects of his interesting study. The following is one of many : Starting at six o'clock one morning, in the summer of 1864, for a walk to our beautiful mountain, to collect insects, provided with the requisite apparatus, a wide-mouthed bottle, with spirits, for beetles, and a small flat box, lined with cork, for butterflies, &c., my success was particularly good. The first captures were eleven specimens of carrion beetles, comprising three species, viz., Silpha peltata, SUpha marginalis, and S'dphi incequalis. These were obtained from the body of a dead hawk owl (^Surnia ulula). Having secured them in the bottle, and walking leisurely along, I noticed a toad {Bu/o Americanus) sitting contentedly at the root of a basswood tree (^TiUa Americana). Having never made use of my dingy friend as an insect collector, although aware of his propensity that way, my mind was made up to press him into the service — but how ? He must be dead first. As he sat looking at me with his beautiful eyes (for although his appearance is not very prepossessing, still those beautiful, bright, yet languid eyes »o a ereat way to improve his appearance), I had certain qualms of conscience about taking his life; still it was in the cause of entomology, and for the furtherance of science his life was sacri- ficed. Now he was dead ; how was I to proceed ? I had cut up and dissected many insects as well as birds; but to cut up a toad, and before breakfast — '-there's the rub" — that grey, warty toad no beautiful eyes now. One slash of the knife through the June] RITCHIE— ON THE TOAD. 177 skin, another through the walls of the stomach, and the poor creature's breakfast was exposed. I was a little disappointed at first, as one or two common forms of beetles presented themselves, that might have been obtained without sacrificing the poor animal; still, I reasoned as he had been up nearly, or perhaps all night, collecting, and I had not, he must have taken some species not in my collection. Having scraped the contents of his stomach into my bottle of spirits, I started home, resolved to see what the insects were before breakfast. I spread them out on a sheet of blotting-paper and counted them, the result being as follows, naming them for the benefit of my entomological friends, who have not made use of the toad as a collector of insects : — There were thirteen perfect specimens, viz., — No. of Specimens. Cymindis pilosa, rare, ..... one. Platynus cupripennis, common, . . . two. Bembidium quadrimaculatum, uncommon, . one. Cercyon, undetermined, .... three. Tachyporus jocosus, common, . . . one. Paederus littorarius, rare, .... one. Ips faciatus, common, ..... three. Ips sanguinolentus, common, . . . one. Besides these, there were one elytron each of Hippodamia and of Brachycantha ; also vestiges of legs and wings of other insects. I have killed several toads since, with similar results ; one, I may mention, had the stomach filled with a species of Chrysome- lidcB, Dorijphora trimaculata, amounting to eleven specimens. He had evidently come across a colony of that insect, and made a hearty breakfast. I may state that this insect was in great abundance, during 1864, on the Island of Montreal. The same may be said of last summer, 1868; taking them by the score on the Mountain, also along the river at Hochelaga. The earlier you go out in the morning the better; before sun- rise, if possible, ere the process of digestion has gone too far. Birds are also very useful as collectors of insects, as may be seen by the following from one of the daily papers, being only one of many thousand examples : — Birds thb Paemkr's Friends — An intelligent farmer boy in Illinois observed a small flock of quails, commencing at one side of a cornfield, 178 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June taking about five rows regularly through the field, scratching and picking around every hill, then returning p.nd taking another five rows, until thinking they were pulling up the corn, he shot one and then examined the field. On the ground they had been over, he found but one stalk of corn disturbed, but in the quail's crop he found one cut worm, twenty- one striped vine bugs, over a hundred chintz bugs that he could dis- tinctly count, and a mass apparently consisting of hundreds of chintz bugs, but not one kernel of corn. During the past five years the quails in that vicinity have been decreasing, and the chintz bug iucreaaing. It will thus be seen, from what has been said regarding the habits of those humble animals, toads and birds, what great services they render to man in the economy of nature, and will, it is hoped, tend to show that it is the duty of all, especially of agriculturists, to preserve such valuable animals. ON TRICHINA SPIRALIS. By J. Baker Edwards, Ph. D., F. 0. S., (Late Lecturer on Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence at the Royal Infirmary School of Medicine, Liverpool, England. The occurrence of two fatal cases of Trichiniasis at Hamilton, Ont., and the successful treatment of several cases in Montreal, have drawn fresh attention to the parasite causing this disease; and as the researches into its natural history are somewhat scattered, it is thought a short resumi may not be uninteresting to our readers. The cysts containing this parasite, and forming its sarcophagus in the flesh, were observed and examined microscopically by Tiedman in 1822. These were found in human muscle after death, and occasioned much speculation as to their real nature. In 1835 they were minutely examined by Mr. James Paget, and described and named by Professor Owen;* but as there then existed no clue to their natural history, they for some years possessed no interest beyond the fact of their existence in human muscle, and their classification as a genus of Entozoa; belong- ing to the order, Ccelelmintha ; family, Nematoidea. Herbst found, in 1841, that dogs, when fed upon parts of a badger containing these worms, became infested with them in their muscles. But it remained for Zenker, in 1860, to show that the human body becomes infected with these parasites in • Trans. Liuueau Socy., LXXX., LXXXIY. June] EDWARDS — ON TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 179 consequence of eating pork already containing them. Since this time, thousands of deaths have been traced to this cause, which would previously have been attributed to typhoid, gastric, or rheumatic fever, paralysis, poisoning, or atrophy. Further researches by Virchow of Berlin and Leuckart of Giessen, added greatly to our knowledge of the natural history of the species, and Prof. Dalton has elaborately studied cases of the disease in New York. Trichiniasis is now fully established as one of the " ills which flesh is heir to." In several hospital examinations of human bodies after death from various causes, from 2 to 3 per cent, of adults are found to contain old encrusted capsules containing these worms, thus bearing evidence of the existence of this disease at some former period. In the Chicago market a medical com- mission found in the pork offered for sale 2 per cent, of flesh thus infected. From these facts it may be inferred that the disease occurs much more frequently than has heretofore been supposed, but that it is only under peculiar circumstnuces that the worm breeds with such excessive rapidity as to cause fatal or even serious results. The cases of the disease which have recently occurred on this Continent have caused still further investigations to be made as to its character, the probability of its detection, and the means of cure. Of these cases, those which occurred in the west were fatal, but those in Montreal, being of a slight nature and speedily diagnosed, were treated successfully. The whole literature of the question has been searched for an explanation of the facts which presented themselves in the Montreal cases, and whilst they are found to be in general accordance with cases on record, in some respects they may be considered unique. The history of the Montreal cases may be concisely stated thus : On Wednesday, the 24th of March, a family in a boarding- house partook of some hastily-fried ham. Within an hour afterwards two of the adults felt nauseated and had some pain in the stomach. One took a large dose of brandy, and vomited his dinner ; the other felt only abdominal pain, spasms, and faint- ness. He returned from his work and went to bed. During the night his wife and wife's mother felt ill, and suffered from pains in the bowels, together with great feverishness and thirst. During the following day, five other persons, who had partaken of the same 180 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST, [June meal, suffered more or less from similar symptoms, and in the evening of Thursday called in a physician, who, after careful enquiry, diagnosed Trichin'asis, and called in a second opinion on the case. On Good Friday a slice of ham was submitted to me for microscopic examination, in which I discovered, after some hours' investigation, several characteristic specimens of Trichina spiralis. By Monday morning, with the assistance of my friend Mr Ritchie, I had found several groups of Trichina, both in the free state and partially, as well as fully, encysted. These were during the same day shown to a considerable number of medical friends. Mr. C. Baillie kindly placed his micro-photographic apparatus at my disposal, and during the week produced some excellent negatives of the worms " in situ " in the pork muscle. No. 1. — This photograph (reproduced by Mr. Inglis) shows a sroup of Trichinae in very close proximity, travelling up a line of muscular tissue, or rather between the muscular bundles. No. 4 shows an individual worm surrounded by a gelatinous cyst, protruding his head therefrom, apparently in search of food, for his head and mouth can be distinguished under the microscope in the dark mass of muscle to the right of the field. Above, around and below are the worms not encysted, but curled up in the band of muscle, so that thirteen may be counted on a field of view not exceeding the tenth of an inch in diameter. No. 5 shows what appears to be a lateral section of the worm fully encysted, but the worm is really whole, and the section only optical, the cyst being so transparent as to allow focusing through it. The cyst, although perfect, is not calcareous, and in no case did any calcareous cysts present themselves. The above were found in the slice of ham in question, and, indeed, in one particular muscle of that ham, of which the horizontal section did not exceed one- quarter inch in thickness. It is evident, therefore, that the disease was recent in the young pig from which the ham was taken, and that, being in the free and semi-encjsted condition, the worms were in a condition to be aroused into action and activity in a much shorter time than had they been fully and calcareously encysted. According to Virchow^*^ » Virchow's archives, 1850, vol. xxxiii, page 535. June] EDWARDS — ON TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 181 and Zenker the period of incubation of the cyst in the stomach is from six to eight days. This has been erroneously inter- preted to mean that such a period must elapse before any marked symptoms can be recognized. Such a period of time however, is meant to be inclusive of the reproducing power of each individual, from whose body successive broods of young, numbering from 100 to 200, are discharged. Dr. T. S. Cobbold* has found a period of sixty-nine hours amply sujBBcient for the development of the young muscle flesh worms of the human subject into the sexually mature adult Trichina of the dog. If all the worms were calcareously encysted a delay of from three to six days might be expected before intestinal irritation was a marked symptom. But in cases where the worms are young and free in the muscle, develop- ment may take place in a few hours, and rapid multiplication take place before other encysted worms were released from their capsules. Thus a succession of fresh irritations to the muscular and nervous system may be expected from the first few hours to a period of eight or ten weeks. In the fatal cases examined in Chicago and Hamilton no single case of encysted Trichina was found in the flesh, but in the Montreal cases one or two distinct and complete cysts were extracted from the man's leg. This was eight weeks after eating the pork, and when the symptoms had somewhat abated, but considerable pain still felt in the muscles. The great shock to the system, which frequently terminates fatally, appears to result from excessive generation of the worms at any one period; — thus young and healthy persons are frequently killed sooner than older and more feeble individuals, the reason being that in the former case probably more food is eaten, digestion is more rapid, nausea more readily overcome by active exertion, and the breeding of the worms becomes excessive and continuous. In the Hamilton cases the young woman died in three weeks, whilst her mother survived six weeks, after eating the fatal repast. Nos. 2 and 3 in the photograph show examples of the worms in the latter case. In No. 2 the worm is carefully picked out from the muscle. No. 3 shows the muscle containing the worms in various postures on a line of muscle, it also * Journal Linnean Society, vol. ix, page 209. 182 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June shows two generations on or near the same line of muscle. The faint curve near the edge of the margin being a larger and older worm than the other three, it is but partially in focus, and only about one half is, therefore, seen. These worms have been generally figured in works on Physiology in two conditions, viz., encysted in the muscle, and sexually developed in the intestinal canal. The appearance of the young sexless worm in transitu in the flesh has not been carefully described. Some observers have, therefore, mistaken it for another species, whilst others have overlooked it altogether. The photographs Nos. 1, 3, 4 and 5 show fairly the varied forms in which the worm may be . expected to be found in flesh during periods of from one to six weeks after ingestion. After a period of from six to twelve months the cysts become covered with a phosphatic opaque deposit, and the worm can only be seen by dissection or by solution of the coating in weak acid. These old cysts are sometimes found empty. The best medium which I have found for mounting recent muscle for the examination and extraction of specimens, under the microscope, is a mixture of one part glycerine and one part aqueous carbolic acid. The muscle may be conveniently examined by a two- third object glass, and a B. or C. eye piece with the smallest aperture in the diaphragm. The extracted worm is best seen under a ^inch objective, with a small pencil of light, or by polarised light. No. 1 is magnified 100 diameters; Nos. 2 and 3, 150 diameters; Nos. 4 and 5, 50 diameters. In 1866 some valuable experiments were conducted, in reference to the propagation of these worms, by Dr. T. Spencer Cobbold,* whose researches on Cestoid Entozoa place him at the head of English authorities on such subjects. After feeding animals with trichinous food, seven experiments on birds all proved negative. Three sheep, two dogs, one pig and one mouse gave also negative results. Nine cases were successful, viz., four dogs, two cats, one pig, one Guinea pig and one hedgehog. While we may, therefore, conclude that birds and herbivorous mammals are very unlikely subjects for infection by this JourQal of the Linnean Society, Zoology, vol. 9, p. 205. June] EDWARDS— ON TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 183 means ; it is also found that other animals, as the dog and pig, for instance, may partake of the food and yet escape infection. This helps to explain the recorded facts that large parties have eaten of trichinous food in comp;iny, and some have been killed, others suffered slightly, and again some escaped altogether. Moreover, in the human subjects examined post-mortem^ where the disease has not proved fatal, in some cases, the cysts were by no means numerous, whilst in others they have been estimated at from forty to one hundred millions. The excessive alarm which is apt to seize the public mind b^ the discovery of a case here and there is not, therefore, justified by the fticts when properly understood. At the same time, whatever means can be adopted by the public authorities to prevent its becoming a familiar disease in our new Dominion should be forthwith adopted. REMARKABLE LUNAR PHENOMENON. By C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L. A somewhat rare and singularly beautiful phenomenon occurred between the hours of 9 and 10.20 p.m. of the 25th January, 1869, at this place (Montreal.) It has been said that haloes and coronoe are very seldom or ever seen around either the Sun or Moon at the same time, and that their existence is very rare, and has been seen but by very few observers; but such was the case in the present instance, and deserves to be placed on record. " The moon of the winter's night had hid the stars, A how of beauty, rich in shades of light, Had circled in a crown of golden rays ; The snow lay stretched in beds of silvery white." The sky at 8 p.m. was quite free from visible clouds ; the moon shone with a brightness peculiar to our Canadian climate; but few of the stars were visible. The Moon's age at noon was 12.9 days. The Barometer at 9 p.m. stood at 29.710 inches Thermometer at 0*^ (zero) with light breezes from the West. At 8.30 p.m. very light and indistinct cirrus clouds began to form in the Zenith, very minute, and at a very high altitude. They somewhat rapidly increased in size and density, mingling with a slight cumulus which had formed in the West, and were 184 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June carried by the wind eastward. These together formed round the moon a corona of golden light 5'^ in diameter, encircled by a concentric ring or halo of bright prismatic rays of about 1° in breadth. The red ray was nearest the moon, then the orange, — and next respectively the yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet shades. A second but much larger circle or halo was also visible during part of the time, about 1 5° in diameter, and tinted with faint prismatic colours. Cirrus and cumulus clouds were seen floating from the west eastward, and were very visible and well defined within the concentric rings. These appearances lasted for nearly an hour. The formation of cumulus clouds became more dense, and at a less altitude began to obscure the distinct outlines, and seemed to co-miuglc and to obliterate these appearances from view. At 9h. 40m. p.m. heavy cumulus clouds spread rapidly and covered the whole horizon. A very high wind prevailed during the whole of the night. At 7 a.m. the next day (the 26th) the barometer had fallen to 29.646 inches, with a slight rise in temperature. The ther- mometer at the same hour stood at 1°. A small amount of snow fell at 8h. 20m. a.m. It might be stated that a partial eclipse of the moon occurred on the evening of the 27th. Its appearance was unsatisfactory, owing to the presence of clouds and to the hazy state of the atmosphere. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN. By C. Smallwood, M.D., L.L.D., D.C.L. The geographical distribution of rain over the surface of the globe may be said to be proportioned to temperature, its humidity to the tides or fluctuation in the atmosphere, as indicated by the barometric variations, to changes ol temperature, and to the configuration of the earth's surface. The conditions necessary to the formation of rain are the presence of clouds, (although some observers have recorded rain falling from a cloudless sky,) to that of the cirrus (or snow cloud) at a high elevation, and at a low temperature (some 40° degrees below zero), together with the cumulus (or vapour cloud). These co-mingling by moist air-currents being forced into the higher region of the atmosphere by colder. June] SMALLWOOD — ON RAIN. 185 less humid and consequently heavier currents from beneath, form together the nimbus (or rain cloud). These induce a change in temperature and electrical action, conditions neces- sary to produce rain. This is carried by clouds and currents of wind and distributed over the lands of our continents, thus watering the earth, supplying vegetation, and the various wants of mankind and returning again by the rivers to the sea. From the surface of the ocean pure aqueous vapours are constantly ascending to supply the unceasing requirements of the organic and inorganic world. Rain-clouds are attracted to certain localities more than to others, for it was shewn that at Ulleswater (England) the great heat of 1866 caused a great increase in the amount of rain, owing to its condensation by the mountains in that district. But beyond the formation of the surface of our globe, there are other conditions which supply natural conductors, such as the pointed extremities of the leaves of trees and of plants. May not our primaeval forests have given rise to a different meteoro- logical condition of a former world ? The great coal formations may be taken as an example in illustration of this. Many countries have been made sterile by cutting down indiscriminately the whole of the trees. Such, indeed, is actually the case in the recent deserts of Syria, Chaldea and Barbary. The '■'■Oases" of the desert are nothing more than a few trees purposely left as a shade for the weary traveller. The value of several estates in the West Indies has been greatly diminished by the cutting down of the trees upon them, and the rain fall over large regions of our own continent is much diminishing, 'owing, no doubt, to the large and extensive clear- ances of our forest ; while on the other hand, the rain fall in the Upper Province of Egypt has been increased tenfold by the planting of twenty millions of trees by Mehemet Ali. Until two years ago rain in that Province was unknown ; but in twelve months ending April last there were actually 14i days on which rain fell, and later there fell a heavy shower — a phenomenon which the oldest Arab had never witnessed. Here we see rain returning to the desert on restoring the trees. Ic Spanish America, lakes have had their area diminished and their shores dried from the general removal of the trees by the Spaniards ; but now that cultivation has been resumed by the enterprising Americans, these lakes are being again filled up TOL. lY. 1^ No. 2. 186 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June with water, and the shores are once more plentifully supplied with rain. Extensive drainage, although beneficial to the rapid growth of plants and to the profit of the agriculturist, may also tend to diminish the rain fall by robbing the springs of their supply and by conducting the surface water more rapidly to the livers and to the ocean. Those lauds near the sea over which the wind transports the aqueous vapour there acquired are, as a general rule, the most plentifully watered, while those distant from this source receive less in amount ; these facts are fully borne out by actual observations. And may not the diminished rain fall in England be attributed in a great measure to the extensive surface draining by drain-tiles and other methods which are resorted to to promote the rapid growth and excessive yield of grain and some of the other agricultural products ? It will be seen that rain increases with the temperature, from the fact that hot air holds more water suspended than cold. The humidity of the atmosphere attains its maximum at the sea shore, and there tends to produce the greatest amount of precipitation. These causes are always present, but in a modi- fied degree, and frequent, though small, showers are the necessary consequence ; heavy and violent rain storms are of rare occur- rence there. In proportion as the mercurial column in the barometer falls, there is more chance of rain being formed, inversely in countries with a high Barometric pressure, such as on the 30th degree of latitude, where there is very little rain. Such regions have a tendency to become deserts. Variations of temperature and irregularities of climate increase the showers of rain ; and the formation of the soil plays also an important part in the production of rain, for ascending concave surfaces of soil receive a maximum, more especially when exposed to rainy winds, and more rain falls in looudrd than in hare districts. It rarely or never rains on the coast of Peru, in the great Valley of the River Columbia, in that of the Colorado in North America, the Sahara in Africa, and the Desert of Gobi in Asia, while in Patagonia and Chiloe it rains almost every day. Days of rain are more numerous in high than in low latitudes. lu the region of Calmus it rains during a part of every day, June] SMALLAVOOD — ON RAIN. 187 the fall amounting to 225 inches in the year. The heaviest fall of rain on our globe takes place on the Khasia Hills to the north-west of Calcutta, and amounts to 600 inches annually. The greatest amount which has fallen in the vicinity of Montreal in one hour was 1.110 inches. These observations extend over a period of upwards of 20 years. Below is a table shewing the annual mean amount of Rain fall at some of the principal stations on our globe. The amount is in inches and tenths : — Inches. Madras 55.10 Bombay - - - - 75.00 Canton 78.00 Sierra Leone - - - 87.00 Kio Janeiro - - - - 89.00 Barbadoes - - - 72.00 Vera Cruz - - - - 183.00 Bergen 89.90 Stockhohn ... - 19.67 Copenhagen - - - 18 55 Brussels 29.96 Naples 29.94 Eome 30.86 Paris 22.64 St. Petersburgh - - - 17.65 London - - - . 22.00 Oxford 27.10 Cork 40.00 Inches. Dublin - - 24.00 Glasgow - - 21.33 Aberdeen - 28.87 Manchester • - 36.00 Liverpool - - - 34.00 New York - 28.63 Cambridge - - 44.48 Albany - 40.67 Baltimore - - 40.98 New Orleans - - 52.31 Cincinnati - - 48.63 San Francisco - - 22.00 "Washington - - 41.20 Halifax - - 43.44 St. John, N.B, - - 42.10 Toronto - - 31..^)0 Montreal - 36.00 Quebec - .39.10 188 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST, [June OX SOME OF THE CAUSES OF THE EXCESSIVE MORTALITY OF TOUXG CHILDREI^ IN" THE CITY OF MOXTREAL. By Philip P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph. D., Hon. Secretary of the Montreal Sanitary Association. The object of the present paper is (1) to continue and enlarge upon the data given in the Canadian Naturalist, New Series, Vol. 3, pp. 134-156, under the head of " Vital Statistics of Montreal ;'' and (2) to enquire into some of the causes of the most unusual disproportion between the deaths of young children and adults. The lettering and numbering is so given as to correspond with the previous article, to which the reader would do well to refer back. The figures for 1866 are repeated, along with, the general average of 12 years, in order to make a suitable comparison with tlie succeeding years. It should be remembered that in each of the years beginning with 186G the official directors and executors of public hygiene have stated that the city was never before in so cleanly a condition. A. — The Census Returns. In advance of the approaching Census, it is most important to remember how inaccurate the last was proved to be ; the double entry of "uncooked" figures for Quebec deaths presenting a discrepancy of 296 (see p. 134), and the Montreal deaths pre- senting a known deficiency of 1,143 (see Table 8, p. 147). It behoves all members of the governments therefore, both federal, provincial and municipal, and all who can bring influence to bear upon these governments, to see to it that the appointments are not given to incompetent political favourites, but to the best men that can be found for so important a public work. The citizens of the largest (and the most unhealthy) city in the Dominion should especially see to this. B. — The Protonotary's Keturns. These continue to be the only accessible data for the Births in Montreal, as well as for both Births and Deaths in the surrounding counties. Yet they only record religious ceremonies. The births among Baptists (a very small sect, however, in this city and province) are not publicly registered. An imperative Registration of Births and Deaths (with the proximate and remote causes of the latter under medical certificate) is among I860.] CARPENTER — ON VITAL STATISTICS. 189 the first duties of our government. It should not be left to the peculiar views of the leaders in either Province, but should be ■uniform for the whole Dominion, and enforced by sufficient penalties. In the following tables, Vaudreuil and Soulangcs, having been permanently removed to another registration district, are no longer xepi'esented by averages. The population of the six counties was ;81,291 in 1861, to which the average increase, viz., 2,938, is added year by year. This alteration somewhat affects the averages as previously given : — 4. Montreal City: Returns of Baptisms and Fiineral Services. Year. Supposed Population. Births. Deaths. Excess Deaths of Births per over 1,000 Deaths. | Living. Deaths per 100 Births. Average of 7 years 93,583 4,545 3,390 1,155 36-2 74 Montreal City in 1865 1866 1867 186S 1 03,363 i22,e88 5,543 5,158 5,598 S,o6o 3,761 3,381 4,247 4,567 1,782 1,777 1,351 493 36.4 30.3 37-7 37-4 68 65 76 go Average of 4 years 113,358 5,339 3,989 1,350 35-4 75 5. Six adjacent Counties: Returns of Baptisms and Funeral Services. Year. Supposed Population. Births. ' Deaths. 1 Excess of Births over Deaths. Deaths per 1,000 Livnig. Deaths per 100 Births. Average of 8 Counties for 7 109,611 3,923 1,911 2,012 17.4 48 SiA- Counties in 1865 1866 1867 1868 93,043 95,981 98,919 101,857 2,763 2,591 2,686 2,588 , 1,651 1,415 1,603 1,532 i'i76 1,083 1,056 17.7 14-8 16.2 15.4 59 59 59 59 97,450 2,657 1,550 1,107 16.0 Ditto, corrected to the Popu- lation of Montreal Ditto, Montreal City 113,358 113.358 3,ogi 5,339 1,803 3,989 1,288 1-350 i6.o 35-4 59 75 Balance for and against the City 2,248 2,186 62 19.4 190 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [J, It appears, therelore, tliat though our mothers give birth to more than 2,000 infauts yearly, in addition to the infants born among the same number of country people, the city only gains 62 lives, as the fruit of all this suffering and loss ! The deaths registered by the Clergy, in the city of Montreal, as compared with those registered at the Cemeteries, present the following results. Comparison of Mortality-Records in Montreal City, 1 866—1 868. Year. Cemetery Returns. Clergy Returns. Not Entered Clergy Returns. Or, per 100 Deaths. Or, per 1,000 Living. 3,6io 4.465 4,842 3,381 4.247 4,567 229 21S 275 6.3 2.0 4.9 1.9 5.7 [ -2 xles .':.■:::::".::::::: Total 12,917 12,195 722 S-6 2.0 C. — Interments at the Cemeteries. The allowances to be made in estimating the accuracy of these returns are stated at p. 147 ; for the comparison of years, of seasons and of ages with each other, they are invaluable. During the last year, the descriptive columns in the weekly sheets have been filled up with much more accuracy than heretofore, in consequence of urgent representations from the Sanitary and Medical Associations; but they are not yet accurate enough for the requirements either of medical, sanitary or statistical science. This is greatly to be regretted and deprecated ; because in a large city, where all the interments are made at two cemeteries, a very little determination on the part of the officials would produce nearly all that can be desired. 18G9.] CARPENTER — ON VITAL STATISTIC!- 191 ^sgi o 1^0^ ■* t^ ri -i- O aS._i " M N c-l N l_ i^ «'^'l ^ IkI NO ■? "i ^ 11 §1 s^^ ~w 1 5«.= t ?>^S' 5r ' '"^ § s lO N roo ^ !=■> NOD ON VO m ro m ro ro i Oo" ^ ■vo vi "1 M o 3^ « nD Tf "^ SO ^00 t^ 5 r^44 -f g o s < :=2l •vT ^ " ^^ CO Tf ■«• r^ CO 1 " " " " ^.^ c 1 -^ ^^1 ^flCO CO ^ 68| N ?; fr^ •^ -b •— ^ G ■ ' c» ON n ^ Q -5 1 en " ir> 2; ^ u !l^ . .^ ^ O ON»3 ON •^ ^^■| Q ;^ Q "^ ^ ■^ — , ^ ^ -• ^ sD tCO ro •^ S "3 3 CT- "■J, ''1 ''0 " ■K> « ^ " " " " i^ . -a , ~~^ rfOJOO o K. III C> M-.0 rT 1 00 M M N c^^" r~ '. « 1 is <4-, ." o o > 5 1 s «J?^ < " >< 192 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Juv ^. M "^ "^ ^ . >^ ^ ^ ^ 3^ 2 OO ?[o-^^ oS b ^ ^ ^ ^ ?^ . d o t-,^ o M--5 ( '^CC CO "^oo ^,-0 <. ^[SS<2^4nco \D in rj o O O ro 00 ONvo o o o lo nro »o o in inyD »n r^ ri o (^\d inoo o G^ m tN-co o^ c^ O in -^ o NO r^^ ONNMOoocont^ mco c^ »n o nD O '-' rr\0 O O CO -^CO \o t^ f^oo 00 o^o m o> in in -^ sO 00 O <^ "op7dation, at yearly rate 0/ 28.2 Deaths in lowest month {June) on average of 10 years 299 Or, per 1,000 0/ present popjilation, at yearly rate of. 18.3 Total Deaths during July, i866 4S2 July, 1867 36s " August, 1867 452 Deaths of infants under i year, July, 1S67 107 " children between i and 5 years, July, 1867 62 " " 5 and 10 years, July, 1867 18 " infants under i year, Aug., 1867 158 " children between i and 5 years, Aug., 1867 86 " " S and 10 years, Aug., 1867 22 Yearly rate of Deaths among 5,500 children under i year, July, 1S67, per 1,000. 233.0 " " 24,000 " 5 years, " " 84.5 " " 43,000 " 10 years, " " 52.2 Deaths from Cholera in/antjun, July, 1866 89.0 Juiy. 1867 49.0 By correcting these numbers according to the ratio of Montreal population, it appears that the July deaths were here more than three times those of Boston, although an unprecedented number of families had left our city ; that of the total deaths in the year, only 39 per cent in Boston are of children under 5 years, instead of 65 per cent in Montreal ; and that of these only 24 per cent in Boston were under one year, instead of 46 per cent in Montreal. Of the children born in Montreal, two out of cverij five died within the year. These being the frightful facts of the case, so far as they can be at present ascertained, it becomes the duty of every thought- ful citizen to enquire into their causes. The most evident of these is the fearful number of illegitimate children each year thrown away by their unnatural and most wicked parents, and placed under the fostering care of the Soeurs Grises at their Foundling Hospital. The condition in which they are received will be understood from the following table. 18(59.] CARPENTER — ON VITAL STATISTICS. 199 26. Condition of Infants received at the Montreal Foundling Hospital. Without covering With only a cotton cloth Almost frozen Bleeding tbrou'^Ii want of the necessary } offices al liiiUi. ... \ Not washud after birth Wounded by Instruments Tainted with Syphilis Sick Dving Dead With bloody flux With Ha-morrhage of the lungs Not classed as above, but frequently ^ covered with vermin j Total received 1867. Whenever there appears a chance of life, these infants are sent into the country, in the care of nurses under surveillance. Even under favourable circumstances, there would be but poor chance of saving the livesof most of these abandoned ones; but it appears from a Report presented by the Medical officers to the City Council that the nurses are often unable to supply them with natural aliment. When they die, the corpses are sent to Montreal for interment, and are entered in our city bills of mortality, as their baptisms had been in the Protonotary's returns. The following statistics have been compiled from the Register of Deaths kept at the Hopital General. 200 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June 27. Mortality at the Montreal Foundling Hosp ital. Year. .863 1864 X865 i866 1867 1868 Total. Average of SIX years. January February March 26 32 38 48 59 80 102 % 43 39 45 49 54 S3 43 65 86 59 36 50 46 42 58 38 52 67 ^8 104 70 43 42 31 39 34 43 68 66 68 94 64 35 50 36 32 32 34 47 47 53 82 85 43 31 44 35 34 33 48 61 61 lOI 94 76 49 29 34 25 23s 193 2S2 344 333 464 581 417 252 246 241 210 39 32 47 April 57 77 July 69 September October November December 42 41 40 35 Total 623 8 60s 16 665 629 IS 634 15 643 t 3,798 74 t H&dMzl Adults... t Total Children.. 61S 589 645 614 6,9 642 3,724 621 Of whom died, Under 7 days. .. '• I month.. Under i year. . . Between i and 5 427 590 24* iS 404 573 14 24 401 612 32* 23 402 593 21 35 368 5S3 34 22 34S 610 31 134 2,350 3,561 156 7 22 362 593 26 Between 5 and 12 years A more simple mode of keeping the register having been adopted at the suggestion of the writer, the following table has been eliminated for the past year. The numbers in the first column are included in the second, and both in the third. * A large propoition of these deaths were froni rougeole. It will be observed that the children, being in the country, escaped the fatal scarlatina which ravaged the city children in 1864, and also the unusual city mortality of July, 1867 ; also that last year June was in excess of July, which has never happened in the city. It is marvelous to observe that the coldest month is also the healthiest ; even for these children who are so often received partially or entirely frozen, and so generally with insufficient clothing. t In consequence of the mode in which the register was kept previously to 1868, some deaths of adults had been added-in with those of children ; and for so small a number, distributed over the months, it was not thought needful to analyze the returns afresh. ISOO.J CARPENTER — ON VITAL STATISTICS. 201 28. Death-rate, per 7?ionths and ages, at the Montreal Foundling Hospital, 1868. Under I week. Under 1 Under I mouth. I year. Between I and s Years. Between 5 and 12 years. Total Deaths. January P'ebruary March I i6 i6 i6 33 42 47 33 19 23 14 26 26 44 59 60 100 93 72 46 29 31 24 S 7 4 2 4 3 3 31 33 48 May..' 94 76 49 29 34 25 September November December Total 22 348 610 3' ' 642 A comparison of figures in the seeond column fully bears out the common impression in the city that children born in winter have much greater chance of life than those born in summer. The following table exhibits the frightful loss of life to the community from parental neglect. 29. Balance of Life at the Montreal Fonndling Hospital. Years. Infants received. Died at the Total Deaths. Remaining alive. Or, per H-P-'- Sousl cent. i8'S 1866 1867 729 624 652 67S 17 639 IS 566 46 552 14 623 656 58, 73 43 54 41 10. 6.9 8-3 6.1 Total 2,683 92 2,380 2,472 2., 7.8 Many persons have attributed this excess of mortality to the existence of the Foundling Hospital; and one of the "religious" newspapers asserted (although the facts of the case were easily accessible) that " it was estimated that about 2,000 children die annually in it." * In order to correct these and other unfounded rumours, the Mere Superieure of the Sceurs Grises has obligingly furnished the writer with the needful statistics, which, without any exaggeration, are appalling in the extreme. The Sisters are quite willing to allow that, with more knowledge, and with more means at their disposal to render available the knowledge already possessed, a much larger propor- * See the Echo of June I9th, 1867. Vol. IV. Q No. 2. 202 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June tion of these " unwelcome children " could be saved, to become useful members of the community ; but even this religious city cannot provide Indies more willing to do this most loathsome of works, and more devoted to the service which they thus offer to our common Saviour. Materials are not accessible to make an extended comparison of the mortality among Montreal found- lings with that of the same class elsewhere, but the following particulars are given in the ''• Fifth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities of Massachusetts," pp. 35, 37, 38, 45 : — 30. Comparative Mortality of Foundlings, under one year of age. Per cent. Supposed yearly death-rate at the Neapolitan Hospital 90 In some Hospitals, as high as 9S In some well-managed Hospitals., as low as from 40 — 60 In good Asylums, from 30 — 50 In good single families, from 20 — 35 Average death-rate of infants in the whole oi Massachusetts 13.5 " " " in the country districts of ditto 12.6 '■ " " in Suffolk county, including Boston 17.4 Mortality at the Foundling Hospital, Ward Island, New York, 186S : — " Infants suckled by their own mothers 20.0 " " bottle-fed on milk by their own mothers 29.5 " Foundlings suckled by nurses 72.5 " " bottle-fed on milk by nurses 89.6 Montreal Foundlings, bottle-fed by nurses, 1868 89.9 Ordinary Montreal Infants, 1867 29. 3 Total City mortality of infants under one year, (in Boston, 17.4 ;) in Montreal, 1867 36. 8 It is an open question, which need not be here discussed, whether or not such institutions do more good, in the care of the forsaken, or harm, in the facility afforded to escape the shame of unlawful parentage. Two things are certain, viz., that while the passions of men remain uncontrolled by religion, especially when intensified by city life, these children will continue to be born ; and that, where there are no such institutions, prae- and post-natal murder are common though often undiscovered crimes. Whether these children die scattered over the city, or collected into a hospital, or (as in our case) distributed through country homes, their deaths fairly belong to, as they have been thus far reckoned with, the city mortality. One poition of the deaths, however, does not belong to us, viz., June] CARPENTER — ON VITAL STATISTICS. 203 those wlio are sent into the city from other places ; sometimes in a hamper or carpet-bag, by rail ; and frequently, as may be supposed, in a moribund condition. The following table embodies all that is known of their origin. 30. Birth-place of Montreal Foundlings, 1865-68. 1. Canadian Cities. ni Is IJ ,11 ^ Years. o- X-5 It n 1865 443' 35.J 147 1 20 26 18 9 6°{ 30 8 6 12 19 44 40 42 30 IS 15 26 2S 7 29 44 2 2S6 176 239 322 729 624 652 678 1867 1868 . . Total Yearly average. .J 440 no 120 86 30 2. 45 156 39 67 17 105 26 4 1023 256 2683 671 A comparison may now be instituted between the mortality of ordinary children and those neglected by their parents. 3 1 . Comparative Mortality of Montreal Fonndlings and Ordinary Infants. 1867. Baptized. Interred. Or, per loo living at same age. ='g 4,946 I in 8 2,063 583 1,480 I in 2,5 36.8 89.4 Proportion of Foundlings to ditto , J ,1 \ ■^'^ ^ Total, Boston Infants In comparing Montreal with other cities, it would not be fair to make deductions for the peculiarities of our local institutions, because such- peculiarities affect all large cities more or less ; but, for the satisfaction of the inhabitants, the following table may be given. The strangers who are baptized in the city may be reckoned against those born here who are not baptized as infants. 32. Corrected Death-rate for Montreal City. Year. Total Deaths. Proportion for Deaths of Imported Children. Deaths of natives and ordinary inhabitants. Corrected Death-rate per 1,000 living, at all ages. Total Death-rate. 4,025 3,610 454^5 4,842 258 219 302 3.-/67 3,446 4.246 4.540 36.3 30.9 36.4 37-2 1866 . • 37-8 TSfi-7 32.2 Isbs::::;:;:: 38.3 39-6 Average ot 4 years 4,235 236 4,000 35-2 36.9 204 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JunC It follows that, although a portion of the lowered death-rate in 18G6 was due to the unusually small number of inftmts received from the country, the balance, as compared with the average of the years before and after, viz., no fewer thm 550 lives, or 5-4 per 1 ,000 inhdntants, may fairly be assigned to the anti-cholera cleansing. What a rebuke it gives to the members of the Council, and to the citizens who intrust to their care their own health and the very lives of their little ones, that in each succeeding year, notwithstand- ing the yearly boast that " the city was never so clean before," the death-rate has risen even above the previous number, humiliating as that is as compared with much larger and more crowded cities ! This table further rebukes those who attribute our excessive mortality to the strangers received at the Foundling Hospital, by showing that the average deduction to be made for this cause only amounts to 1'7 deaths per 1,000 inhahitants. At the discussions which were held at the Natural History Society on this subject, a great variety of causes were assigned for the excessive mortality among our children. Probably all of these have more or less effect ; but many of them apply with fully equal, if not greater force to other cities ; and others again apply to the country districts just as much as to ourselves. Thus the frightful number of unwelcome children born among us, averaging 400 yearly, besides those who are provided-for by their parents) may be attributed in part to the large garrison which has been till lately stationed here ; but it is the fruit of the same sin that curses humanity eslcwhere. A large number of infantile deaths are undoubtedly caused by the drunkenness of their parents ; but Montreal is not an unusually drunken city. The milk sold by many dealers is of inferior quality; but taking the city through, it is probably better and cheaper than in most English cities. Errors in diet, and deficiency of parental care are undoubtedly grievous causes of disease ; but there is no reason to think that Montreal mothers are less careful and enlightened than in the country round : they ought to be more so. As to unripe fruit, &c., the country children get far more of it than we; and at the ages at which city children get most of it, it has been proved that they are unusually healthy. And as to the idea that catholic infants are predisposed to death from exposure to cold through the custom of early christening, it so happens that the coldest months, during which this cause ought to operate most, are by far the lowest in the death-rate. June] CARPENTER — ON VITAL STATISTICS. 205 It is only distracting attention from the main and solemn issue, thus to beat around the bush. Every thoughtful person who has observed and studied the simplest fiicts and first prin- ciples in sanitary science, must be aware that a sufficient cause for all our deaths is to be found in the filth and pollutions which are allowed to remain in our midst, and which poison the air, more or less, of the whole city, but most of all of the low and Bwampy districts. A large proportion of the inhabitants pour their slops daily on the spongy soil around their dwellings ; house drains or even paved water-courses are little known ; the contents of privies surcharge the porous earth around; and our back-yards, unusually large as compared with English cities, and which ought therefore to add greatly to our healthiness, are only so many more square feet soaked through and through with foetid matter, forming (except during the merciful winter frost) an incesssant poison factory, wafting disease and death into our dwellings. A large number of our houses are built on stumps driven into this putrid soil or even marsh ; the cellars are always charged with miasms, which find their way into the upper rooms ; and too often the houses, even if not back to back, have no doors or windows except on one side. Very lately an M.D. of this city, with above the average of reputation, planted a group of cottages of this description on one of the worst undrained swamps in our midst. As if these evils, which may not meet the gaze of strangers, were not enough, the corporation persist in laying most of the streets in soft limestone, which in a very few days is ground to fine dust, and soon becomes charged with eifete animal matter, in which form it enters our dwellings and lungs ; or else it is in a state of mud, which emits so nauseous a stench that cottagers, who have shut their back windows to keep out the smell of the yards, are obliged to shut the front also to keep out the smell of the street. It is impossible faithfully to execute the contracts for street-cleaning, while this stone, long since reported against by the City Surveyor, and theoretically abandon-ad by the Road Committee, continues in full use : and as to the vaunted scaveng- ing by-law, the Council have re/used the money to carry it out ! It may be said with very few exceptions, that in the more crowd- ed parts of the city inhabited by all except the wealthy, there is scarcely a square yard of ground which is not charged with efi"ete matter, ready to generate poisonous gases under the influence of every summer sun. 206 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June The foregoing may be regarded in great measure as errors of neglect or ignorance; but the very remedies apphed at high cost are continual causes of disease. A large part of the older sewers in the city are made of absorbent and now putrid wood ; and al- though the Council have determined to lay down no more, the brick sewers are often so badly constructed that the eflFete matter oozes through them, and deposits soon accumulate in their slug- gish course. Moreover a large proportion of the house drains, even in high-rented dwellings, are still made of wood and un- trapped. Only the new sewers are trapped at the gulley-holes ; and at times, and in special places, the stench from these old poison- pits is insupportable. Thus our sewer and house drain system may be called (with few exceptions) an express contrivance for conveying the ordinary air-poisons, and the extraordinary infec- tions of small-pox, scarlatina, &c., into every part of the city ; and especially from the low into the higher levels, lest the rich should selfishly conclude that they were not affected by the evils which they allow to scourge the poor. The prevailing currents of air also, in the general direction of the river, while they serve somewhat to mitigate the unhealthiness of Griffintown, carry the air-poisons over the higher districts, where, being intercepted by the " Mountain," they impinge upon the fashionable streets and villas of our city. Infants are more dependent on pure air even than children ; they, more than adults ; yet to all of us, unvitiated air is a necessary condition of health. Moreover, infants c;innot escape from the air of their dwellings, nor from the poisons which fester there. The infantile death-rate is therefore the readiest thermometer, by which we estimate the virulence of poisonous emanations. How this thermometer rises and falls with the heat of the sun, has here been shewn. So far from wondering why so many children die in this city, we might rather wonder how so many manage to struggle into life, against such murderous forces. All these (as well as other) corrupting influences must be removed, if we hope to render up our account to the great Judge, free from the blood of these hundreds of children, to whom the Lord gave Life ; who in their helplessness cry to us to nurture and guard it; but whom we, to save a few wretched dollars and a little toil and trouble, consign to a premature and therefore to a guilt-bearing Death. Montreal, July 20th, 186&. Juno] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 207 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. (Fro77i March Isf to July \st, 1869.) MONEITLY MEETINGS. Sixth monthly meeting, held March 21)th, 1869, the Presi- dent in the Chair. The following donations were announced : TO THE MUSEUM. 1,238 specimens (of 378 species) of Canadian insects, a small collection of fresh water shells, and a fasciculus of dried plants from Newfoundland: from Sir W. E. Logan, LL.D., F.R.S. Pair of Barrow's Golden Eye (^Biicephala Islandici) and female of the common Golden Eye (^Bucephala Americana^ : from James Ferrier, Jr. Pair of the Wood Thrush (^Turdiis nimteUnus) : from Mr. W. Hunter. TO THE LIBRARY. Annelides Ch^tepodes du Golfe de Naples, et Reponse a ses critiques, par M. de Quatrefages: from the author. NEW MEMBERS. James Shearer was elected an ordinary, and Cyril Graham a corresponding member of the Society. PROCEEDINGS. Mr. T. Macfarlane's paper " On the Geology and Silver Ore of Wood's Location, Thunder Cape, Lake Superior," was read by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt. Dr. Girdwood read an essay " On the Application of Manures to Agriculture." Dr. P. P. Carpenter made a communication " On Easy Methods for securing Effective Ventilation and Drainage in Dwellings." Seventh monthly meeting, held April 26th, 1869. DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM. A series of 25 named species of Graptolites from the Moffat 208 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Shales: from W. Carruthers, F.L.S., &c. Seventy species of exotic shells, and a large series of European fossils: from A. Bell. One hundred and fifty species of European fossils, 4 rare minerals, 5 species of recent Echinoderms, 4 of crustaceans, and 2 of corals : from Bryce M. Wright. Seven skins of Jamaican birds, inner bark of the silk cotton tree (^Eriodendroii) and 4 species of exotic seeds : from F. A. B. Vinen. 6 English birds: from Mr. T. Cooke. Thirty-five skins of rare exotic birds, including three species of birds of Paradise ; and 50 species of shells : from J. F. Whiteaves. Eleven species of exotic mammalia: from Mr. E. Gerrard, jr. Four species of foreign birds and 10 of reptiles : from the Liverpool Free Museum, per T. J. Moore. Japanese handkerchief case: from the St. George's Society. Russian soldier's sword, from Sebasto- pol: from J. T. Lacey. TO THE LIBRARY. Nature's Method of Controlling Noxious Insects, by Henry Sbrimer, A.M., M.D. : from the Author. NEAV MEMBERS. Hon. T. Ryan, Senator, Dr. W. Gardner, and Messrs. G. B. Burlaud, H. R. Ives, and R. Kelloud, were elected ordinary members. PROCEEDINGS. Mr. J. F. Whiteaves then made some remarks upon some rare exotic birds recently added to the collection. In this communication the leading features of interest of a large series of birds recently acquired, partly by purchase and partly by donations, were briefly pointed out. SOxMERVILLE LECTURES. The remaining two Lectures of this Course were delivered as follows : 5. March 4th, 1869. On the Recession of the Falls of Niagara: by C. Robb. 6. March 11th, 1869. On the Adulteration of Food: by G. P. Girdwood, M.D., &c. ANNUAL MEETING. The annual meeting was held on the 18th of May, 1869. the transaction of the usual business the Annual Address June] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 209 of the President was delivered by Principal Dawson ; this will be found at page 121. The report of the Council was then read by Dr. J. Baker Edwards, as follows : REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Your Council, in reviewing the work of the past year, believe they may congratulate the members on the amount of progress attained. The ordinary meetings have been fairly attended, and much interest has been evinced in the subjects brought forward ; some of which have been of a highly practical and interesting social character, viz. : — 1. Oct. 26, 1868. — On some Specimens of Palaeontological interest. By Principal Dawson. 2. " " On the remains of Mastodon found at Dunville, Ont. By E. Billings, F.G.S. 3. Nov. 30, 1868. — Notes on Beetles collected in the neighbour- hood of Montreal. By A. S. Ritchie. 4. Dec. 28, 1868. — On some Recent Additions to the Society's Collection of Birds. By J. F. Whiteaves. 5. Jan. 25, 1869. — On the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, By F. Mackenzie. " " " (On the) Vital Statistics of 1868. By Dr. P. P. Carpenter. 6. Feb. 22, 1869.— Notes on a Cruise in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. By John Bell, M.D. 7. " " Notes on the Introduced Plants of Ontario and Quebec. By A. T. Drummond, B.A., LL.B. 8. March 29, 1869.— On the Geology and Silver Ore of Wood's Location, Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. By Thomas Macfarlane. 9. " " On the Application of Manures to Agricul- ture. By Dr. G. P. Girdwood. 10. " " On Easy Methods for Securing Ventilation and Drainage in Dwellings. By Dr. P. P. Carpenter. 11. April 26, 1869.— On some Rare Exotic Birds recently added to the Collection. By J. F. Whiteaves, 12. " " On Disinfectants. By Dr. J. Baker Edwards. 210 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June During the summer recess, the Society held a second field meeting at St. Ann's. Owing to unsettled weather, the party was a comparatively small one, but those who ventured were well repaid. The excursionists were, by courtesy of the Grand Trunk authorities, conveyed by special train, which stopped first at Pointe Claire, allowing an interval, during which the party walked to the Quarries, and listened to an interesting address from Principal Dawson on the Geological features there exposed. Many fossils were obtained and the rocks closely examined. The train then proceeded to St. Ann's, where the company separated into groups; the first, to collect fossils, under the guidance of Dr. Dawson ; the second, to Fort La Berre, on the property of the Hon. J. Abbott, who gave a brief history of the old fort, and kindly entertained the party, which was conducted by Dr. Girdwood and Mr. Ritchie ; and lastly, a botanical and microscopical party, in charge of Messrs. Whiteaves, McCord, and Edwards, who crossed over the river to Isle Perrot, where a large number of specimens in flower were obtained. After the return to the station, the prizes were announced as tbllows : Largest number of named species of Flowering Plants, Mrs. Dr. Girdwood. " " unnamed. Miss Dawson. Juvenile Prize for Bouquet, Miss Edwards. The Course of Somerville Lectures was of considerable and general interest, it embraced the following subjects : 1. On Palaeozoic Land Animals. By Principal Dawson, F.R.S., &c. 2. On the Chemistry of Soap-making. By J. Baker Edwards, Ph. D., F.C.S. 3. On the Zoology of the Bible. By Rev. A. DeSola, LL.D. 4. On Primaeval Chemistry. By Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. 5. On the Recession of Niagara Falls. By Charles Robb. 6. On the Adulteration of Food. By G. P. Girdwood, M.D., &c. The thanks of the Council and members are due to the gentle- men who have thus volunteered their exertions on the behalf of public instruction in Science. June] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 211 The Conversazione, held on the 18th of February, was lively and interesting, and the Council believe was very acceptable to the members generally. The President gave an interesting address on the value of Scientific Education and Schools of Science for Adults. Prof. Johnson and Dr. Smallwood exhibited and explained a variety of philosophical apparatus, kindly lent by McGill College. Dr. J. B. Edwards exhibited and floated in the Museum, Plateau's Soap Bubbles charged with gas, which Mr. Charles Baillie illuminated with the Electric Light and maintained it steadily throughout the evening. A pro- gramme of excellent music was provided by Herr Mayerhoifer and his friends, the German Choral Society. A good display of Microscopes under the charge of members of the Montreal Microscopic Club, attracted great attention in the Library, which was also adorned with some valuable works of art, arranged by Mr. J. P. Clark. On the 2nd February, an address was presented at the Court House, to the Governor General, Sir J. Young, who accepted the same with cordiality, and expressed his willingness to lend his aid to the Society, by becoming its Patron. The following day Hia Excellency visited the Museum, and was received by the Officers of the Society. He carefully examined the collections, and expressed his pleasure and interest therein. We are indebted to the exertions of our esteemed Scientific Curator, Mr. Whiteaves, for very valuable additions to our Museum, partly presented and partly purchased, which will be enumerated in his report. These add greatly to the attractive character of the collection. The membership of the Society during the year has somewhat diminished. The additions have been 14 — losses 17 ; other sources of income are below the average ; and in consideration of the loss of income by the presentation of Life membership to subscribers towards the debt, it becomes the duty of the friends of the Society to seek further additions to its ranks, and your Council would recommend an active canvass for new members and for subscribers to the Quarterly Journal, during the coming year. To the active officers of the Society, especially our indus- trious Curator, Mr, Whiteaves, our skilful bird-stuffer, Mr. Hunter, and our indefatigibable Treasurer, James Ferrier, jun., Esq., the Society owes its best thanks for steady and hearty co-operation. 212 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June The Council have much pleasure in recommending to the Society that the silver Medal be presented to Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., for his valuable contributions to Science, in connection with the Geological Survey, and in the advancement of Chemical Geology in Canada. The ventilation and lighting of the Lecture Room received the attention of your Council in the early part of the session, and some improvements in the admission of air were eifected ; it was found, however, absolutely necessary to provide means for carrying off the products of combustion, and by the kind assistance of Mr. M. H. Sanborn, the necessary amount was raised by voluntary contribution to complete the plan, by exchanging the open light for a Liverpool suuburner, which, being connected with a chimney, carries off all foul air, and will in future provide for the comfort and health of the audiences. One or two more improvements only require the necessary funds for their adoption, and your Council would appeal to some of the members to assist the future Council in carrying out these arrangements, viz., to provide a vestibule in the hall, and close in the lobby for a Curator's room, to fit double windows in the Lecture Room and Museum, and to colour and paint the premises. In the Library a reading desk has been provided and the periodicals may there be found by members. The Library, how- ever, requu-es urgently some clearances and additions, which duty we commend to the early attention of our successors. During the year, the Canadian Naturalist has been put on a new and more popular basis, which your Council hope will make it more generally subscribed for among the members, and more acceptable to the public than heretofore. The Editing Committee has been x'e- organised, with a view to issue the Journal with greater regularity, and it will now appear Quarterly instead of Bi-monthly. It will contain a greater variety of matter, and be of a more popular scientific character. The Committee regret the delay in the appearance of the first number, which was partly due to the backward state of the two numbers of the last series, and partly to the printers' strike. The first number is now laid on the table and will be immediately in the hands of subscribers. Mr. Whiteayes, the Acting Editor and Recording Secretary, will be glad to receive the names of members who have not already subscribed for this Journal, and to receive communications or papers for publication therein, on subjects of natural or general June] NATURAL HI^-TORY SOCIETY. 213 scienco. The Society is responsible for 100 copies of the Journal which will be supplied to members at iD2 per annum. J. B. EDWARDS, Ph. D., F.C.S., Chairman of Council. Mr. Whiteavea read his report as Curator and Recording Secretary, as under : curator's report. During the past session, a large portion of the time has been spent in the active collection of new specimens. The additions tj the Museum have been as follows : — mammalia. Thirteen fine specimens of exotic mammals, new to the collec- tion, have been added. These have been mounted, named, and placed temporarily in one of the large cases in the Museum. Two species have been added to our American series, a fine example each of the Water Mole (^Scalops aquaticus), and of the Missouri pouched Rat (^Geomys hursarius). Want of the necessary cases compels a temporary arrangement of many of the exotic mammals. Several of the Canadian mammals are represented by very old and badly-preserved specimens, and these, as opportunity ofi"ers should be renewed. BIRDS. Efforts have been persistently made for some years past to make the series of Canadian birds as perfect as possible. Old specimens have been weeded out, and their places filled with fresh examples. During the past twelve months, twenty-two specimens have been added to our local collection. In the department of Foreign birds, great progress has been made. About 164 specimens have been added, all species of much interest, and some of considerable rarity. Among these latter may be noticed, three species of birds of Paradise, two species of the beautifully- coloured fruit pigeons (Ptilinopus), of the Indian Archipelago, Sonnerats' jungle fowl, three species of albatross, &c. The whole of the new birds have been skilfully mounted by Mr. Hunter, and are all named. 214 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June REPTILES AND FISHES. Thirteen species of reptiles and three of fishes have been added during the past session. The space allotted to this part of the collection is altogether insufiicient to exhibit even the whole of our present series. It is for this reason that we have not done anything towards completing our series of Canadian fishes, as at present we have nowhere to put them. There are quite a number of reptiles and fishes in alcohol, which we are unable to exhibit from want of the proper bottles, and of suitable cases. T'he same reason has prevented the forming of a collection of the smaller and more critical Canadian fishes. INVERTEBRATA. In the kingdom moUusca rather over 100 species have been added. Large series of Canadian insects have been received from Sir W. E Logan, Mr. Billings, Mr. Ritchie, and Mr. Barnston. Over 500 species have been added, but many of these are duplicate specimens. Finally, five species of echinodermata, two of crustaceans, three cirrhipedes, two corals, and several sponges have been received. GEOLOGY. About 260 species of fossils, mostly from European formations, have been obtained. This has necessitated the re-grouping of the whole collection, which has been done, and the additions mounted, named, and incorporated with the general scries. A few new minerals have also been received. MISCELLANEA. Several donations have been made to the ethnological and miscellaneous collections, but none of very special interest. LIBRARY. During the past year no new books have been purchased, and we still have to regret the absence of works of reference of recent date in every department of American natural history. Still, some improvements have been made in the library. By special application to the authorities we have succeeded in getting 35 volumes of the British Museum descriptive catalogues. During my stay . in Ensland efforts were made, with much success, to complete our series of English periodicals. Several of the num- bers wanting to complete our American serials have also been June] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 215 procured, upon application to the editors ; 20 volumes of serials have been bound since the last annual meeting ; a reading-desk has been placed in the library, and the table re-covered. Since the first of January considerable time has been spent in connection with the first number of the new volume of the Society's Journal, copies of which are now laid upon the table. The most prominent wants in the Museum are additional cases for the series of mammalia, for fishes and reptiles, and for the formation of a collection to illustrate comparative anatomy and osteology. Further, special cases, with proper bottles, are urgently required to contain the collection of specimens preserved in alcohol, only a small portion of which can now be exhibited. The additions to the collection during the session are the most important and numerous that liave been received for years; and in conclusion, it is hoped that the work done has been in a satis- flictory degree conducive towards the efficient carrying out of those objects, which it is the aim of this Society to foster and cherish. J. F. WHITEAVES, F. G. S., &c., Curator and Rec. Secretary. It was moved by W. Muir, seconded by L. A. H. Latour, and carried unanimously, That the reports just submitted be accepted, printed, and distributed to the members. On motion of Dr. Edwards, seconded by Dr. Small wood, it was resolved : " That the silver medal of the Society be voted to Dr. T, Sterry Hunt, F. R. S., to mark its appreciation of the value of his scientific labours, more especially in the department of Chemical Geology," A vote of thanks to the President for his able and interesting address, having been moved by John Leeming,. and seconded by Dr. Smallwood, was carried with acclamation. The following resolution was also carried, having been moved by John Leeming, seconded by J. H. Joseph: " That the thanks of the Society be voted to the oflicers for the past session, particularly to the Scientific Curator." The following officers were then elected, Messrs. A. T. Drum- mond and Dr. John Bell acting as scrutineers :